Zig Language Reference

Introduction §

Zig is a general-purpose programming language and toolchain for maintaining robust, optimal, and reusable software.

Robust
Behavior is correct even for edge cases such as out of memory.
Optimal
Write programs the best way they can behave and perform.
Reusable
The same code works in many environments which have different constraints.
Maintainable
Precisely communicate intent to the compiler and other programmers. The language imposes a low overhead to reading code and is resilient to changing requirements and environments.

Often the most efficient way to learn something new is to see examples, so this documentation shows how to use each of Zig's features. It is all on one page so you can search with your browser's search tool.

The code samples in this document are compiled and tested as part of the main test suite of Zig.

This HTML document depends on no external files, so you can use it offline.

Zig Standard Library §

The Zig Standard Library has its own documentation.

Zig's Standard Library contains commonly used algorithms, data structures, and definitions to help you build programs or libraries. You will see many examples of Zig's Standard Library used in this documentation. To learn more about the Zig Standard Library, visit the link above.

Hello World §

hello.zig
const std = @import("std");

pub fn main() !void {
    const stdout = std.io.getStdOut().writer();
    try stdout.print("Hello, {s}!\n", .{"world"});
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe hello.zig

$ ./hello
Hello, world!

The Zig code sample above demonstrates one way to create a program that will output: Hello, world!.

The code sample shows the contents of a file named hello.zig. Files storing Zig source code are UTF-8 encoded text files. The files storing Zig source code are usually named with the .zig extension.

Following the hello.zig Zig code sample, the Zig Build System is used to build an executable program from the hello.zig source code. Then, the hello program is executed showing its output Hello, world!. The lines beginning with $ represent command line prompts and a command. Everything else is program output.

The code sample begins by adding the Zig Standard Library to the build using the @import builtin function. The @import("std") function call creates a structure that represents the Zig Standard Library. The code then declares a constant identifier, named std, that gives access to the features of the Zig Standard Library.

Next, a public function, pub fn, named main is declared. The main function is necessary because it tells the Zig compiler where the start of the program exists. Programs designed to be executed will need a pub fn main function.

A function is a block of any number of statements and expressions that, as a whole, perform a task. Functions may or may not return data after they are done performing their task. If a function cannot perform its task, it might return an error. Zig makes all of this explicit.

In the hello.zig code sample, the main function is declared with the !void return type. This return type is known as an Error Union Type. This syntax tells the Zig compiler that the function will either return an error or a value. An error union type combines an Error Set Type and any other data type (e.g. a Primitive Type or a user-defined type such as a struct, enum, or union). The full form of an error union type is <error set type>!<any data type>. In the code sample, the error set type is not explicitly written on the left side of the ! operator. When written this way, the error set type is an inferred error set type. The void after the ! operator tells the compiler that the function will not return a value under normal circumstances (i.e. when no errors occur).

In Zig, a function's block of statements and expressions are surrounded by an open curly-brace { and close curly-brace }. Inside of the main function are expressions that perform the task of outputting Hello, world! to standard output.

First, a constant identifier, stdout, is initialized to represent standard output's writer. Then, the program tries to print the Hello, world! message to standard output.

Functions sometimes need information to perform their task. In Zig, information is passed to functions between an open parenthesis ( and a close parenthesis ) placed after the function's name. This information is also known as arguments. When there are multiple arguments passed to a function, they are separated by commas ,.

The two arguments passed to the stdout.print() function, "Hello, {s}!\n" and .{"world"}, are evaluated at compile-time. The code sample is purposely written to show how to perform string substitution in the print function. The curly-braces inside of the first argument are substituted with the compile-time known value inside of the second argument (known as an anonymous struct literal). The \n inside of the double-quotes of the first argument is the escape sequence for the newline character. The try expression evaluates the result of stdout.print. If the result is an error, then the try expression will return from main with the error. Otherwise, the program will continue. In this case, there are no more statements or expressions left to execute in the main function, so the program exits.

In Zig, the standard output writer's print function is allowed to fail because it is actually a function defined as part of a generic Writer. Consider a generic Writer that represents writing data to a file. When the disk is full, a write to the file will fail. However, we typically do not expect writing text to the standard output to fail. To avoid having to handle the failure case of printing to standard output, you can use alternate functions: the functions in std.log for proper logging or the std.debug.print function. This documentation will use the latter option to print to standard error (stderr) and silently return on failure. The next code sample, hello_again.zig demonstrates the use of std.debug.print.

hello_again.zig
const print = @import("std").debug.print;

pub fn main() void {
    print("Hello, world!\n", .{});
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe hello_again.zig

$ ./hello_again
Hello, world!

Note that you can leave off the ! from the return type because std.debug.print cannot fail.

See also:

Comments §

comments.zig
const print = @import("std").debug.print;

pub fn main() void {
    // Comments in Zig start with "//" and end at the next LF byte (end of line).
    // The line below is a comment and won't be executed.

    //print("Hello?", .{});

    print("Hello, world!\n", .{}); // another comment
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe comments.zig

$ ./comments
Hello, world!

There are no multiline comments in Zig (e.g. like /* */ comments in C). This helps allow Zig to have the property that each line of code can be tokenized out of context.

Doc comments §

A doc comment is one that begins with exactly three slashes (i.e. /// but not ////); multiple doc comments in a row are merged together to form a multiline doc comment. The doc comment documents whatever immediately follows it.

doc_comments.zig
/// A structure for storing a timestamp, with nanosecond precision (this is a
/// multiline doc comment).
const Timestamp = struct {
    /// The number of seconds since the epoch (this is also a doc comment).
    seconds: i64,  // signed so we can represent pre-1970 (not a doc comment)
    /// The number of nanoseconds past the second (doc comment again).
    nanos: u32,

    /// Returns a `Timestamp` struct representing the Unix epoch; that is, the
    /// moment of 1970 Jan 1 00:00:00 UTC (this is a doc comment too).
    pub fn unixEpoch() Timestamp {
        return Timestamp{
            .seconds = 0,
            .nanos = 0,
        };
    }
};

Doc comments are only allowed in certain places; eventually, it will become a compile error to have a doc comment in an unexpected place, such as in the middle of an expression, or just before a non-doc comment.

Top-Level Doc Comments §

User documentation that doesn't belong to whatever immediately follows it, like container-level documentation, goes in top-level doc comments. A top-level doc comment is one that begins with two slashes and an exclamation point: //!.

tldoc_comments.zig
//! This module provides functions for retrieving the current date and
//! time with varying degrees of precision and accuracy. It does not
//! depend on libc, but will use functions from it if available.

Values §

values.zig
// Top-level declarations are order-independent:
const print = std.debug.print;
const std = @import("std");
const os = std.os;
const assert = std.debug.assert;

pub fn main() void {
    // integers
    const one_plus_one: i32 = 1 + 1;
    print("1 + 1 = {}\n", .{one_plus_one});

    // floats
    const seven_div_three: f32 = 7.0 / 3.0;
    print("7.0 / 3.0 = {}\n", .{seven_div_three});

    // boolean
    print("{}\n{}\n{}\n", .{
        true and false,
        true or false,
        !true,
    });

    // optional
    var optional_value: ?[]const u8 = null;
    assert(optional_value == null);

    print("\noptional 1\ntype: {}\nvalue: {?s}\n", .{
        @TypeOf(optional_value), optional_value,
    });

    optional_value = "hi";
    assert(optional_value != null);

    print("\noptional 2\ntype: {}\nvalue: {?s}\n", .{
        @TypeOf(optional_value), optional_value,
    });

    // error union
    var number_or_error: anyerror!i32 = error.ArgNotFound;

    print("\nerror union 1\ntype: {}\nvalue: {!}\n", .{
        @TypeOf(number_or_error), number_or_error, });

    number_or_error = 1234;

    print("\nerror union 2\ntype: {}\nvalue: {!}\n", .{
        @TypeOf(number_or_error), number_or_error,
    });
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe values.zig

$ ./values
1 + 1 = 2
7.0 / 3.0 = 2.33333325e+00
false
true
false

optional 1
type: ?[]const u8
value: null

optional 2
type: ?[]const u8
value: hi

error union 1
type: anyerror!i32
value: error.ArgNotFound

error union 2
type: anyerror!i32
value: 1234

Primitive Types §

Primitive Types
Type C Equivalent Description
i8 int8_t signed 8-bit integer
u8 uint8_t unsigned 8-bit integer
i16 int16_t signed 16-bit integer
u16 uint16_t unsigned 16-bit integer
i32 int32_t signed 32-bit integer
u32 uint32_t unsigned 32-bit integer
i64 int64_t signed 64-bit integer
u64 uint64_t unsigned 64-bit integer
i128 __int128 signed 128-bit integer
u128 unsigned __int128 unsigned 128-bit integer
isize intptr_t signed pointer sized integer
usize uintptr_t, size_t unsigned pointer sized integer. Also see #5185
c_short short for ABI compatibility with C
c_ushort unsigned short for ABI compatibility with C
c_int int for ABI compatibility with C
c_uint unsigned int for ABI compatibility with C
c_long long for ABI compatibility with C
c_ulong unsigned long for ABI compatibility with C
c_longlong long long for ABI compatibility with C
c_ulonglong unsigned long long for ABI compatibility with C
c_longdouble long double for ABI compatibility with C
f16 _Float16 16-bit floating point (10-bit mantissa) IEEE-754-2008 binary16
f32 float 32-bit floating point (23-bit mantissa) IEEE-754-2008 binary32
f64 double 64-bit floating point (52-bit mantissa) IEEE-754-2008 binary64
f80 double 80-bit floating point (64-bit mantissa) IEEE-754-2008 80-bit extended precision
f128 _Float128 128-bit floating point (112-bit mantissa) IEEE-754-2008 binary128
bool bool true or false
anyopaque void Used for type-erased pointers.
void (none) Always the value void{}
noreturn (none) the type of break, continue, return, unreachable, and while (true) {}
type (none) the type of types
anyerror (none) an error code
comptime_int (none) Only allowed for comptime-known values. The type of integer literals.
comptime_float (none) Only allowed for comptime-known values. The type of float literals.

In addition to the integer types above, arbitrary bit-width integers can be referenced by using an identifier of i or u followed by digits. For example, the identifier i7 refers to a signed 7-bit integer. The maximum allowed bit-width of an integer type is 65535.

See also:

Primitive Values §

Primitive Values
Name Description
true and false bool values
null used to set an optional type to null
undefined used to leave a value unspecified

See also:

String Literals and Unicode Code Point Literals §

String literals are constant single-item Pointers to null-terminated byte arrays. The type of string literals encodes both the length, and the fact that they are null-terminated, and thus they can be coerced to both Slices and Null-Terminated Pointers. Dereferencing string literals converts them to Arrays.

The encoding of a string in Zig is de-facto assumed to be UTF-8. Because Zig source code is UTF-8 encoded, any non-ASCII bytes appearing within a string literal in source code carry their UTF-8 meaning into the content of the string in the Zig program; the bytes are not modified by the compiler. However, it is possible to embed non-UTF-8 bytes into a string literal using \xNN notation.

Unicode code point literals have type comptime_int, the same as Integer Literals. All Escape Sequences are valid in both string literals and Unicode code point literals.

In many other programming languages, a Unicode code point literal is called a "character literal". However, there is no precise technical definition of a "character" in recent versions of the Unicode specification (as of Unicode 13.0). In Zig, a Unicode code point literal corresponds to the Unicode definition of a code point.

string_literals.zig
const print = @import("std").debug.print;
const mem = @import("std").mem; // will be used to compare bytes

pub fn main() void {
    const bytes = "hello";
    print("{}\n", .{@TypeOf(bytes)});                   // *const [5:0]u8
    print("{d}\n", .{bytes.len});                       // 5
    print("{c}\n", .{bytes[1]});                        // 'e'
    print("{d}\n", .{bytes[5]});                        // 0
    print("{}\n", .{'e' == '\x65'});                    // true
    print("{d}\n", .{'\u{1f4a9}'});                     // 128169
    print("{d}\n", .{'💯'});                            // 128175
    print("{}\n", .{mem.eql(u8, "hello", "h\x65llo")}); // true
    print("0x{x}\n", .{"\xff"[0]}); // non-UTF-8 strings are possible with \xNN notation.
    print("{u}\n", .{'⚡'});
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe string_literals.zig

$ ./string_literals
*const [5:0]u8
5
e
0
true
128169
128175
true
0xff

See also:

Escape Sequences §

Escape Sequences
Escape Sequence Name
\n Newline
\r Carriage Return
\t Tab
\\ Backslash
\' Single Quote
\" Double Quote
\xNN hexadecimal 8-bit byte value (2 digits)
\u{NNNNNN} hexadecimal Unicode code point UTF-8 encoded (1 or more digits)

Note that the maximum valid Unicode point is 0x10ffff.

Multiline String Literals §

Multiline string literals have no escapes and can span across multiple lines. To start a multiline string literal, use the \\ token. Just like a comment, the string literal goes until the end of the line. The end of the line is not included in the string literal. However, if the next line begins with \\ then a newline is appended and the string literal continues.

multiline_string_literals.zig
const hello_world_in_c =
    \\#include <stdio.h>
    \\
    \\int main(int argc, char **argv) {
    \\    printf("hello world\n");
    \\    return 0;
    \\}
;

See also:

Assignment §

Use the const keyword to assign a value to an identifier:

constant_identifier_cannot_change.zig
const x = 1234;

fn foo() void {
    // It works at file scope as well as inside functions.
    const y = 5678;

    // Once assigned, an identifier cannot be changed.
    y += 1;
}

pub fn main() void {
    foo();
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe constant_identifier_cannot_change.zig
docgen_tmp/constant_identifier_cannot_change.zig:8:7: error: cannot assign to constant
    y += 1;
    ~~^~~~
referenced by:
    main: docgen_tmp/constant_identifier_cannot_change.zig:12:5
    callMain: /home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:604:17
    remaining reference traces hidden; use '-freference-trace' to see all reference traces


const applies to all of the bytes that the identifier immediately addresses. Pointers have their own const-ness.

If you need a variable that you can modify, use the var keyword:

mutable_var.zig
const print = @import("std").debug.print;

pub fn main() void {
    var y: i32 = 5678;

    y += 1;

    print("{d}", .{y});
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe mutable_var.zig

$ ./mutable_var
5679

Variables must be initialized:

var_must_be_initialized.zig
pub fn main() void {
    var x: i32;

    x = 1;
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe var_must_be_initialized.zig
docgen_tmp/var_must_be_initialized.zig:2:5: error: variables must be initialized
    var x: i32;
    ^~~~~~~~~~

undefined §

Use undefined to leave variables uninitialized:

assign_undefined.zig
const print = @import("std").debug.print;

pub fn main() void {
    var x: i32 = undefined;
    x = 1;
    print("{d}", .{x});
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe assign_undefined.zig

$ ./assign_undefined
1

undefined can be coerced to any type. Once this happens, it is no longer possible to detect that the value is undefined. undefined means the value could be anything, even something that is nonsense according to the type. Translated into English, undefined means "Not a meaningful value. Using this value would be a bug. The value will be unused, or overwritten before being used."

In Debug mode, Zig writes 0xaa bytes to undefined memory. This is to catch bugs early, and to help detect use of undefined memory in a debugger. However, this behavior is only an implementation feature, not a language semantic, so it is not guaranteed to be observable to code.

Zig Test §

Code written within one or more test declarations can be used to ensure behavior meets expectations:

introducing_zig_test.zig
const std = @import("std");

test "expect addOne adds one to 41" {

    // The Standard Library contains useful functions to help create tests.
    // `expect` is a function that verifies its argument is true.
    // It will return an error if its argument is false to indicate a failure.
    // `try` is used to return an error to the test runner to notify it that the test failed.
    try std.testing.expect(addOne(41) == 42);
}

/// The function `addOne` adds one to the number given as its argument.
fn addOne(number: i32) i32 {
    return number + 1;
}
Shell
$ zig test introducing_zig_test.zig
1/1 test.expect addOne adds one to 41... OK
All 1 tests passed.

The introducing_zig_test.zig code sample tests the function addOne to ensure that it returns 42 given the input 41. From this test's perspective, the addOne function is said to be code under test.

zig test is a tool that creates and runs a test build. By default, it builds and runs an executable program using the default test runner provided by the Zig Standard Library as its main entry point. During the build, test declarations found while resolving the given Zig source file are included for the default test runner to run and report on.

The shell output shown above displays two lines after the zig test command. These lines are printed to standard error by the default test runner:

Test [1/1] test "expect addOne adds one to 41"...
Lines like this indicate which test, out of the total number of tests, is being run. In this case, [1/1] indicates that the first test, out of a total of one test, is being run. Note that, when the test runner program's standard error is output to the terminal, these lines are cleared when a test succeeds.
All 1 tests passed.
This line indicates the total number of tests that have passed.

Test Declarations §

Test declarations contain the keyword test, followed by an optional name written as a string literal, followed by a block containing any valid Zig code that is allowed in a function.

Test declarations are similar to Functions: they have a return type and a block of code. The implicit return type of test is the Error Union Type anyerror!void, and it cannot be changed. When a Zig source file is not built using the zig test tool, the test declarations are omitted from the build.

Test declarations can be written in the same file, where code under test is written, or in a separate Zig source file. Since test declarations are top-level declarations, they are order-independent and can be written before or after the code under test.

See also:

Nested Container Tests §

When the zig test tool is building a test runner, only resolved test declarations are included in the build. Initially, only the given Zig source file's top-level declarations are resolved. Unless nested containers are referenced from a top-level test declaration, nested container tests will not be resolved.

The code sample below uses the std.testing.refAllDecls(@This()) function call to reference all of the containers that are in the file including the imported Zig source file. The code sample also shows an alternative way to reference containers using the _ = C; syntax. This syntax tells the compiler to ignore the result of the expression on the right side of the assignment operator.

testdecl_container_top_level.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

// Imported source file tests will run when referenced from a top-level test declaration.
// The next line alone does not cause "introducing_zig_test.zig" tests to run.
const imported_file = @import("introducing_zig_test.zig");

test {
    // To run nested container tests, either, call `refAllDecls` which will
    // reference all declarations located in the given argument.
    // `@This()` is a builtin function that returns the innermost container it is called from.
    // In this example, the innermost container is this file (implicitly a struct).
    std.testing.refAllDecls(@This());

    // or, reference each container individually from a top-level test declaration.
    // The `_ = C;` syntax is a no-op reference to the identifier `C`.
    _ = S;
    _ = U;
    _ = @import("introducing_zig_test.zig");
}

const S = struct {
    test "S demo test" {
        try expect(true);
    }

    const SE = enum {
        V,

        // This test won't run because its container (SE) is not referenced.
        test "This Test Won't Run" {
            try expect(false);
        }
    };
};

const U = union { // U is referenced by the file's top-level test declaration
    s: US,        // and US is referenced here; therefore, "U.Us demo test" will run

    const US = struct {
        test "U.US demo test" {
            // This test is a top-level test declaration for the struct.
            // The struct is nested (declared) inside of a union.
            try expect(true);
        }
    };

    test "U demo test" {
        try expect(true);
    }
};
Shell
$ zig test testdecl_container_top_level.zig
1/4 test_0... OK
2/4 test.S demo test... OK
3/4 test.U demo test... OK
4/4 test.expect addOne adds one to 41... OK
All 4 tests passed.

Test Failure §

The default test runner checks for an error returned from a test. When a test returns an error, the test is considered a failure and its error return trace is output to standard error. The total number of failures will be reported after all tests have run.

test.zig
const std = @import("std");

test "expect this to fail" {
    try std.testing.expect(false);
}

test "expect this to succeed" {
    try std.testing.expect(true);
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig
1/2 test.expect this to fail... FAIL (TestUnexpectedResult)
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/testing.zig:347:14: 0x2115b7 in expect (test)
    if (!ok) return error.TestUnexpectedResult;
             ^
docgen_tmp/test.zig:4:5: 0x2116d5 in test.expect this to fail (test)
    try std.testing.expect(false);
    ^
2/2 test.expect this to succeed... OK
1 passed; 0 skipped; 1 failed.
error: the following test command failed with exit code 1:
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-local-cache/o/886dbde2c2a21074c6c6d3ff9b83336b/test

Skip Tests §

One way to skip tests is to filter them out by using the zig test command line parameter --test-filter [text]. This makes the test build only include tests whose name contains the supplied filter text. Note that non-named tests are run even when using the --test-filter [text] command line parameter.

To programmatically skip a test, make a test return the error error.SkipZigTest and the default test runner will consider the test as being skipped. The total number of skipped tests will be reported after all tests have run.

test.zig
test "this will be skipped" {
    return error.SkipZigTest;
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig
1/1 test.this will be skipped... SKIP
0 passed; 1 skipped; 0 failed.

The default test runner skips tests containing a suspend point while the test is running using the default, blocking IO mode. (The evented IO mode is enabled using the --test-evented-io command line parameter.)

async_skip.zig
const std = @import("std");

test "async skip test" {
    var frame = async func();
    const result = await frame;
    try std.testing.expect(result == 1);
}

fn func() i32 {
    suspend {
        resume @frame();
    }
    return 1;
}
Shell
$ zig test async_skip.zig -fstage1
1/1 test "async skip test"... SKIP (async test)
0 passed; 1 skipped; 0 failed.

In the code sample above, the test would not be skipped in blocking IO mode if the nosuspend keyword was used (see Async and Await).

Report Memory Leaks §

When code allocates Memory using the Zig Standard Library's testing allocator, std.testing.allocator, the default test runner will report any leaks that are found from using the testing allocator:

test.zig
const std = @import("std");

test "detect leak" {
    var list = std.ArrayList(u21).init(std.testing.allocator);
    // missing `defer list.deinit();`
    try list.append('☔');

    try std.testing.expect(list.items.len == 1);
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig
1/1 test.detect leak... OK
[gpa] (err): memory address 0x7f5ea8dc6000 leaked:
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/array_list.zig:361:89: 0x226845 in ensureTotalCapacityPrecise (test)
                const new_memory = try self.allocator.reallocAtLeast(self.allocatedSlice(), new_capacity);
                                                                                        ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/array_list.zig:346:55: 0x21c46e in ensureTotalCapacity (test)
                return self.ensureTotalCapacityPrecise(better_capacity);
                                                      ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/array_list.zig:385:41: 0x219887 in addOne (test)
            try self.ensureTotalCapacity(newlen);
                                        ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/array_list.zig:170:49: 0x2136cd in append (test)
            const new_item_ptr = try self.addOne();
                                                ^
docgen_tmp/test.zig:6:20: 0x2135f2 in test.detect leak (test)
    try list.append('☔');
                   ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/test_runner.zig:63:28: 0x21a773 in main (test)
        } else test_fn.func();
                           ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:604:22: 0x21402c in posixCallMainAndExit (test)
            root.main();
                     ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:376:5: 0x213b31 in _start (test)
    @call(.{ .modifier = .never_inline }, posixCallMainAndExit, .{});
    ^


All 1 tests passed.
1 errors were logged.
1 tests leaked memory.
error: the following test command failed with exit code 1:
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-local-cache/o/886dbde2c2a21074c6c6d3ff9b83336b/test

See also:

Detecting Test Build §

Use the compile variable @import("builtin").is_test to detect a test build:

detect_test.zig
const std = @import("std");
const builtin = @import("builtin");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

test "builtin.is_test" {
    try expect(isATest());
}

fn isATest() bool {
    return builtin.is_test;
}
Shell
$ zig test detect_test.zig
1/1 test.builtin.is_test... OK
All 1 tests passed.

Test Output and Logging §

The default test runner and the Zig Standard Library's testing namespace output messages to standard error.

The Testing Namespace §

The Zig Standard Library's testing namespace contains useful functions to help you create tests. In addition to the expect function, this document uses a couple of more functions as exemplified here:

testing_functions.zig
const std = @import("std");

test "expectEqual demo" {
    const expected: i32 = 42;
    const actual = 42;

    // The first argument to `expectEqual` is the known, expected, result.
    // The second argument is the result of some expression.
    // The actual's type is casted to the type of expected.
    try std.testing.expectEqual(expected, actual);
}

test "expectError demo" {
    const expected_error = error.DemoError;
    const actual_error_union: anyerror!void = error.DemoError;

    // `expectError` will fail when the actual error is different than
    // the expected error.
    try std.testing.expectError(expected_error, actual_error_union);
}
Shell
$ zig test testing_functions.zig
1/2 test.expectEqual demo... OK
2/2 test.expectError demo... OK
All 2 tests passed.

The Zig Standard Library also contains functions to compare Slices, strings, and more. See the rest of the std.testing namespace in the Zig Standard Library for more available functions.

Test Tool Documentation §

zig test has a few command line parameters which affect the compilation. See zig test --help for a full list.

Variables §

A variable is a unit of Memory storage.

It is generally preferable to use const rather than var when declaring a variable. This causes less work for both humans and computers to do when reading code, and creates more optimization opportunities.

Identifiers §

Variable identifiers are never allowed to shadow identifiers from an outer scope.

Identifiers must start with an alphabetic character or underscore and may be followed by any number of alphanumeric characters or underscores. They must not overlap with any keywords. See Keyword Reference.

If a name that does not fit these requirements is needed, such as for linking with external libraries, the @"" syntax may be used.

test.zig
const @"identifier with spaces in it" = 0xff;
const @"1SmallStep4Man" = 112358;

const c = @import("std").c;
pub extern "c" fn @"error"() void;
pub extern "c" fn @"fstat$INODE64"(fd: c.fd_t, buf: *c.Stat) c_int;

const Color = enum {
  red,
  @"really red",
};
const color: Color = .@"really red";

Container Level Variables §

Container level variables have static lifetime and are order-independent and lazily analyzed. The initialization value of container level variables is implicitly comptime. If a container level variable is const then its value is comptime-known, otherwise it is runtime-known.

container_level_variables.zig
var y: i32 = add(10, x);
const x: i32 = add(12, 34);

test "container level variables" {
    try expect(x == 46);
    try expect(y == 56);
}

fn add(a: i32, b: i32) i32 {
    return a + b;
}

const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;
Shell
$ zig test container_level_variables.zig
1/1 test.container level variables... OK
All 1 tests passed.

Container level variables may be declared inside a struct, union, enum, or opaque:

namespaced_container_level_variable.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

test "namespaced container level variable" {
    try expect(foo() == 1235);
    try expect(foo() == 1236);
}

const S = struct {
    var x: i32 = 1234;
};

fn foo() i32 {
    S.x += 1;
    return S.x;
}
Shell
$ zig test namespaced_container_level_variable.zig
1/1 test.namespaced container level variable... OK
All 1 tests passed.

Static Local Variables §

It is also possible to have local variables with static lifetime by using containers inside functions.

static_local_variable.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

test "static local variable" {
    try expect(foo() == 1235);
    try expect(foo() == 1236);
}

fn foo() i32 {
    const S = struct {
        var x: i32 = 1234;
    };
    S.x += 1;
    return S.x;
}
Shell
$ zig test static_local_variable.zig
1/1 test.static local variable... OK
All 1 tests passed.

The extern keyword or @extern builtin function can be used to link against a variable that is exported from another object. The export keyword or @export builtin function can be used to make a variable available to other objects at link time. In both cases, the type of the variable must be C ABI compatible.

See also:

Thread Local Variables §

A variable may be specified to be a thread-local variable using the threadlocal keyword:

tls.zig
const std = @import("std");
const assert = std.debug.assert;

threadlocal var x: i32 = 1234;

test "thread local storage" {
    const thread1 = try std.Thread.spawn(.{}, testTls, .{});
    const thread2 = try std.Thread.spawn(.{}, testTls, .{});
    testTls();
    thread1.join();
    thread2.join();
}

fn testTls() void {
    assert(x == 1234);
    x += 1;
    assert(x == 1235);
}
Shell
$ zig test tls.zig
1/1 test.thread local storage... OK
All 1 tests passed.

For Single Threaded Builds, all thread local variables are treated as regular Container Level Variables.

Thread local variables may not be const.

Local Variables §

Local variables occur inside Functions, comptime blocks, and @cImport blocks.

When a local variable is const, it means that after initialization, the variable's value will not change. If the initialization value of a const variable is comptime-known, then the variable is also comptime-known.

A local variable may be qualified with the comptime keyword. This causes the variable's value to be comptime-known, and all loads and stores of the variable to happen during semantic analysis of the program, rather than at runtime. All variables declared in a comptime expression are implicitly comptime variables.

comptime_vars.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

test "comptime vars" {
    var x: i32 = 1;
    comptime var y: i32 = 1;

    x += 1;
    y += 1;

    try expect(x == 2);
    try expect(y == 2);

    if (y != 2) {
        // This compile error never triggers because y is a comptime variable,
        // and so `y != 2` is a comptime value, and this if is statically evaluated.
        @compileError("wrong y value");
    }
}
Shell
$ zig test comptime_vars.zig
1/1 test.comptime vars... OK
All 1 tests passed.

Integers §

Integer Literals §

integer_literals.zig
const decimal_int = 98222;
const hex_int = 0xff;
const another_hex_int = 0xFF;
const octal_int = 0o755;
const binary_int = 0b11110000;

// underscores may be placed between two digits as a visual separator
const one_billion = 1_000_000_000;
const binary_mask = 0b1_1111_1111;
const permissions = 0o7_5_5;
const big_address = 0xFF80_0000_0000_0000;

Runtime Integer Values §

Integer literals have no size limitation, and if any undefined behavior occurs, the compiler catches it.

However, once an integer value is no longer known at compile-time, it must have a known size, and is vulnerable to undefined behavior.

runtime_vs_comptime.zig
fn divide(a: i32, b: i32) i32 {
    return a / b;
}

In this function, values a and b are known only at runtime, and thus this division operation is vulnerable to both Integer Overflow and Division by Zero.

Operators such as + and - cause undefined behavior on integer overflow. Alternative operators are provided for wrapping and saturating arithmetic on all targets. +% and -% perform wrapping arithmetic while +| and -| perform saturating arithmetic.

Zig supports arbitrary bit-width integers, referenced by using an identifier of i or u followed by digits. For example, the identifier i7 refers to a signed 7-bit integer. The maximum allowed bit-width of an integer type is 65535. For signed integer types, Zig uses a two's complement representation.

See also:

Floats §

Zig has the following floating point types:

  • f16 - IEEE-754-2008 binary16
  • f32 - IEEE-754-2008 binary32
  • f64 - IEEE-754-2008 binary64
  • f80 - IEEE-754-2008 80-bit extended precision
  • f128 - IEEE-754-2008 binary128
  • c_longdouble - matches long double for the target C ABI

Float Literals §

Float literals have type comptime_float which is guaranteed to have the same precision and operations of the largest other floating point type, which is f128.

Float literals coerce to any floating point type, and to any integer type when there is no fractional component.

float_literals.zig
const floating_point = 123.0E+77;
const another_float = 123.0;
const yet_another = 123.0e+77;

const hex_floating_point = 0x103.70p-5;
const another_hex_float = 0x103.70;
const yet_another_hex_float = 0x103.70P-5;

// underscores may be placed between two digits as a visual separator
const lightspeed = 299_792_458.000_000;
const nanosecond = 0.000_000_001;
const more_hex = 0x1234_5678.9ABC_CDEFp-10;

There is no syntax for NaN, infinity, or negative infinity. For these special values, one must use the standard library:

float_special_values.zig
const std = @import("std");

const inf = std.math.inf(f32);
const negative_inf = -std.math.inf(f64);
const nan = std.math.nan(f128);

Floating Point Operations §

By default floating point operations use Strict mode, but you can switch to Optimized mode on a per-block basis:

foo.zig
const std = @import("std");
const big = @as(f64, 1 << 40);

export fn foo_strict(x: f64) f64 {
    return x + big - big;
}

export fn foo_optimized(x: f64) f64 {
    @setFloatMode(.Optimized);
    return x + big - big;
}
Shell
$ zig build-obj foo.zig -O ReleaseFast

For this test we have to separate code into two object files - otherwise the optimizer figures out all the values at compile-time, which operates in strict mode.

float_mode.zig
const print = @import("std").debug.print;

extern fn foo_strict(x: f64) f64;
extern fn foo_optimized(x: f64) f64;

pub fn main() void {
    const x = 0.001;
    print("optimized = {}\n", .{foo_optimized(x)});
    print("strict = {}\n", .{foo_strict(x)});
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe float_mode.zig foo.o

$ ./float_mode
optimized = 1.0e-03
strict = 9.765625e-04

See also:

Operators §

There is no operator overloading. When you see an operator in Zig, you know that it is doing something from this table, and nothing else.

Table of Operators §

Table of Operators
Syntax Relevant Types Description Example
a + b
a += b
Addition.
2 + 5 == 7
a +% b
a +%= b
Wrapping Addition.
@as(u32, std.math.maxInt(u32)) +% 1 == 0
a +| b
a +|= b
Saturating Addition.
@as(u32, std.math.maxInt(u32)) +| 1 == @as(u32, std.math.maxInt(u32))
a - b
a -= b
Subtraction.
2 - 5 == -3
a -% b
a -%= b
Wrapping Subtraction.
@as(u32, 0) -% 1 == std.math.maxInt(u32)
a -| b
a -|= b
Saturating Subtraction.
@as(u32, 0) -| 1 == 0
-a
Negation.
-1 == 0 - 1
-%a
Wrapping Negation.
  • Guaranteed to have twos-complement wrapping behavior.
-%@as(i32, std.math.minInt(i32)) == std.math.minInt(i32)
a * b
a *= b
Multiplication.
2 * 5 == 10
a *% b
a *%= b
Wrapping Multiplication.
@as(u8, 200) *% 2 == 144
a *| b
a *|= b
Saturating Multiplication.
@as(u8, 200) *| 2 == 255
a / b
a /= b
Division.
10 / 5 == 2
a % b
a %= b
Remainder Division.
10 % 3 == 1
a << b
a <<= b
Bit Shift Left.
1 << 8 == 256
a <<| b
a <<|= b
Saturating Bit Shift Left.
@as(u8, 1) <<| 8 == 255
a >> b
a >>= b
Bit Shift Right.
10 >> 1 == 5
a & b
a &= b
Bitwise AND.
0b011 & 0b101 == 0b001
a | b
a |= b
Bitwise OR.
0b010 | 0b100 == 0b110
a ^ b
a ^= b
Bitwise XOR.
0b011 ^ 0b101 == 0b110
~a
Bitwise NOT.
~@as(u8, 0b10101111) == 0b01010000
a orelse b
If a is null, returns b ("default value"), otherwise returns the unwrapped value of a. Note that b may be a value of type noreturn.
const value: ?u32 = null;
const unwrapped = value orelse 1234;
unwrapped == 1234
a.?
Equivalent to:
a orelse unreachable
const value: ?u32 = 5678;
value.? == 5678
a catch b
a catch |err| b
If a is an error, returns b ("default value"), otherwise returns the unwrapped value of a. Note that b may be a value of type noreturn. err is the error and is in scope of the expression b.
const value: anyerror!u32 = error.Broken;
const unwrapped = value catch 1234;
unwrapped == 1234
a and b
If a is false, returns false without evaluating b. Otherwise, returns b.
(false and true) == false
a or b
If a is true, returns true without evaluating b. Otherwise, returns b.
(false or true) == true
!a
Boolean NOT.
!false == true
a == b
Returns true if a and b are equal, otherwise returns false. Invokes Peer Type Resolution for the operands.
(1 == 1) == true
a == null
Returns true if a is null, otherwise returns false.
const value: ?u32 = null;
value == null
a != b
Returns false if a and b are equal, otherwise returns true. Invokes Peer Type Resolution for the operands.
(1 != 1) == false
a > b
Returns true if a is greater than b, otherwise returns false. Invokes Peer Type Resolution for the operands.
(2 > 1) == true
a >= b
Returns true if a is greater than or equal to b, otherwise returns false. Invokes Peer Type Resolution for the operands.
(2 >= 1) == true
a < b
Returns true if a is less than b, otherwise returns false. Invokes Peer Type Resolution for the operands.
(1 < 2) == true>
a <= b
Returns true if a is less than or equal to b, otherwise returns false. Invokes Peer Type Resolution for the operands.
(1 <= 2) == true
a ++ b
Array concatenation.
const mem = @import("std").mem;
const array1 = [_]u32{1,2};
const array2 = [_]u32{3,4};
const together = array1 ++ array2;
mem.eql(u32, &together, &[_]u32{1,2,3,4})
a ** b
Array multiplication.
const mem = @import("std").mem;
const pattern = "ab" ** 3;
mem.eql(u8, pattern, "ababab")
a.*
Pointer dereference.
const x: u32 = 1234;
const ptr = &x;
ptr.* == 1234
&a
All types Address of.
const x: u32 = 1234;
const ptr = &x;
ptr.* == 1234
a || b
Merging Error Sets
const A = error{One};
const B = error{Two};
(A || B) == error{One, Two}

Precedence §

x() x[] x.y x.* x.?
a!b
x{}
!x -x -%x ~x &x ?x
* / % ** *% *| ||
+ - ++ +% -% +| -|
<< >> <<|
& ^ | orelse catch
== != < > <= >=
and
or
= *= *%= *|= /= %= += +%= +|= -= -%= -|= <<= <<|= >>= &= ^= |=

Arrays §

arrays.zig
const expect = @import("std").testing.expect;
const assert = @import("std").debug.assert;
const mem = @import("std").mem;

// array literal
const message = [_]u8{ 'h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o' };

// get the size of an array
comptime {
    assert(message.len == 5);
}

// A string literal is a single-item pointer to an array literal.
const same_message = "hello";

comptime {
    assert(mem.eql(u8, &message, same_message));
}

test "iterate over an array" {
    var sum: usize = 0;
    for (message) |byte| {
        sum += byte;
    }
    try expect(sum == 'h' + 'e' + 'l' * 2 + 'o');
}

// modifiable array
var some_integers: [100]i32 = undefined;

test "modify an array" {
    for (some_integers) |*item, i| {
        item.* = @intCast(i32, i);
    }
    try expect(some_integers[10] == 10);
    try expect(some_integers[99] == 99);
}

// array concatenation works if the values are known
// at compile time
const part_one = [_]i32{ 1, 2, 3, 4 };
const part_two = [_]i32{ 5, 6, 7, 8 };
const all_of_it = part_one ++ part_two;
comptime {
    assert(mem.eql(i32, &all_of_it, &[_]i32{ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 }));
}

// remember that string literals are arrays
const hello = "hello";
const world = "world";
const hello_world = hello ++ " " ++ world;
comptime {
    assert(mem.eql(u8, hello_world, "hello world"));
}

// ** does repeating patterns
const pattern = "ab" ** 3;
comptime {
    assert(mem.eql(u8, pattern, "ababab"));
}

// initialize an array to zero
const all_zero = [_]u16{0} ** 10;

comptime {
    assert(all_zero.len == 10);
    assert(all_zero[5] == 0);
}

// use compile-time code to initialize an array
var fancy_array = init: {
    var initial_value: [10]Point = undefined;
    for (initial_value) |*pt, i| {
        pt.* = Point{
            .x = @intCast(i32, i),
            .y = @intCast(i32, i) * 2,
        };
    }
    break :init initial_value;
};
const Point = struct {
    x: i32,
    y: i32,
};

test "compile-time array initialization" {
    try expect(fancy_array[4].x == 4);
    try expect(fancy_array[4].y == 8);
}

// call a function to initialize an array
var more_points = [_]Point{makePoint(3)} ** 10;
fn makePoint(x: i32) Point {
    return Point{
        .x = x,
        .y = x * 2,
    };
}
test "array initialization with function calls" {
    try expect(more_points[4].x == 3);
    try expect(more_points[4].y == 6);
    try expect(more_points.len == 10);
}
Shell
$ zig test arrays.zig
1/4 test.iterate over an array... OK
2/4 test.modify an array... OK
3/4 test.compile-time array initialization... OK
4/4 test.array initialization with function calls... OK
All 4 tests passed.

See also:

Anonymous List Literals §

Similar to Enum Literals and Anonymous Struct Literals the type can be omitted from array literals:

anon_list.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

test "anonymous list literal syntax" {
    var array: [4]u8 = .{11, 22, 33, 44};
    try expect(array[0] == 11);
    try expect(array[1] == 22);
    try expect(array[2] == 33);
    try expect(array[3] == 44);
}
Shell
$ zig test anon_list.zig
1/1 test.anonymous list literal syntax... OK
All 1 tests passed.

If there is no type in the result location then an anonymous list literal actually turns into a struct with numbered field names:

infer_list_literal.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

test "fully anonymous list literal" {
    try dump(.{ @as(u32, 1234), @as(f64, 12.34), true, "hi"});
}

fn dump(args: anytype) !void {
    try expect(args.@"0" == 1234);
    try expect(args.@"1" == 12.34);
    try expect(args.@"2");
    try expect(args.@"3"[0] == 'h');
    try expect(args.@"3"[1] == 'i');
}
Shell
$ zig test infer_list_literal.zig
1/1 test.fully anonymous list literal... OK
All 1 tests passed.

Multidimensional Arrays §

Multidimensional arrays can be created by nesting arrays:

multidimensional.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

const mat4x4 = [4][4]f32{
    [_]f32{ 1.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0 },
    [_]f32{ 0.0, 1.0, 0.0, 1.0 },
    [_]f32{ 0.0, 0.0, 1.0, 0.0 },
    [_]f32{ 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0 },
};
test "multidimensional arrays" {
    // Access the 2D array by indexing the outer array, and then the inner array.
    try expect(mat4x4[1][1] == 1.0);

    // Here we iterate with for loops.
    for (mat4x4) |row, row_index| {
        for (row) |cell, column_index| {
            if (row_index == column_index) {
                try expect(cell == 1.0);
            }
        }
    }
}
Shell
$ zig test multidimensional.zig
1/1 test.multidimensional arrays... OK
All 1 tests passed.

Sentinel-Terminated Arrays §

The syntax [N:x]T describes an array which has a sentinel element of value x at the index corresponding to len.

null_terminated_array.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

test "null terminated array" {
    const array = [_:0]u8 {1, 2, 3, 4};

    try expect(@TypeOf(array) == [4:0]u8);
    try expect(array.len == 4);
    try expect(array[4] == 0);
}
Shell
$ zig test null_terminated_array.zig
1/1 test.null terminated array... OK
All 1 tests passed.

See also:

Vectors §

A vector is a group of booleans, Integers, Floats, or Pointers which are operated on in parallel, using SIMD instructions if possible. Vector types are created with the builtin function @Vector.

Vectors support the same builtin operators as their underlying base types. These operations are performed element-wise, and return a vector of the same length as the input vectors. This includes:

  • Arithmetic (+, -, /, *, @divFloor, @sqrt, @ceil, @log, etc.)
  • Bitwise operators (>>, <<, &, |, ~, etc.)
  • Comparison operators (<, >, ==, etc.)

It is prohibited to use a math operator on a mixture of scalars (individual numbers) and vectors. Zig provides the @splat builtin to easily convert from scalars to vectors, and it supports @reduce and array indexing syntax to convert from vectors to scalars. Vectors also support assignment to and from fixed-length arrays with comptime known length.

For rearranging elements within and between vectors, Zig provides the @shuffle and @select functions.

Operations on vectors shorter than the target machine's native SIMD size will typically compile to single SIMD instructions, while vectors longer than the target machine's native SIMD size will compile to multiple SIMD instructions. If a given operation doesn't have SIMD support on the target architecture, the compiler will default to operating on each vector element one at a time. Zig supports any comptime-known vector length up to 2^32-1, although small powers of two (2-64) are most typical. Note that excessively long vector lengths (e.g. 2^20) may result in compiler crashes on current versions of Zig.

vector_example.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expectEqual = std.testing.expectEqual;

test "Basic vector usage" {
    // Vectors have a compile-time known length and base type.
    const a = @Vector(4, i32){ 1, 2, 3, 4 };
    const b = @Vector(4, i32){ 5, 6, 7, 8 };

    // Math operations take place element-wise.
    const c = a + b;

    // Individual vector elements can be accessed using array indexing syntax.
    try expectEqual(6, c[0]);
    try expectEqual(8, c[1]);
    try expectEqual(10, c[2]);
    try expectEqual(12, c[3]);
}

test "Conversion between vectors, arrays, and slices" {
    // Vectors and fixed-length arrays can be automatically assigned back and forth
    var arr1: [4]f32 = [_]f32{ 1.1, 3.2, 4.5, 5.6 };
    var vec: @Vector(4, f32) = arr1;
    var arr2: [4]f32 = vec;
    try expectEqual(arr1, arr2);

    // You can also assign from a slice with comptime-known length to a vector using .*
    const vec2: @Vector(2, f32) = arr1[1..3].*;

    var slice: []const f32 = &arr1;
    var offset: u32 = 1;
    // To extract a comptime-known length from a runtime-known offset,
    // first extract a new slice from the starting offset, then an array of
    // comptime known length
    const vec3: @Vector(2, f32) = slice[offset..][0..2].*;
    try expectEqual(slice[offset], vec2[0]);
    try expectEqual(slice[offset + 1], vec2[1]);
    try expectEqual(vec2, vec3);
}
Shell
$ zig test vector_example.zig
1/2 test.Basic vector usage... OK
2/2 test.Conversion between vectors, arrays, and slices... OK
All 2 tests passed.

TODO talk about C ABI interop
TODO consider suggesting std.MultiArrayList

See also:

Pointers §

Zig has two kinds of pointers: single-item and many-item.

  • *T - single-item pointer to exactly one item.
    • Supports deref syntax: ptr.*
  • [*]T - many-item pointer to unknown number of items.
    • Supports index syntax: ptr[i]
    • Supports slice syntax: ptr[start..end]
    • Supports pointer arithmetic: ptr + x, ptr - x
    • T must have a known size, which means that it cannot be anyopaque or any other opaque type.

These types are closely related to Arrays and Slices:

  • *[N]T - pointer to N items, same as single-item pointer to an array.
    • Supports index syntax: array_ptr[i]
    • Supports slice syntax: array_ptr[start..end]
    • Supports len property: array_ptr.len
  • []T - is a slice (a fat pointer, which contains a pointer of type [*]T and a length).
    • Supports index syntax: slice[i]
    • Supports slice syntax: slice[start..end]
    • Supports len property: slice.len

Use &x to obtain a single-item pointer:

single_item_pointer_test.zig
const expect = @import("std").testing.expect;

test "address of syntax" {
    // Get the address of a variable:
    const x: i32 = 1234;
    const x_ptr = &x;

    // Dereference a pointer:
    try expect(x_ptr.* == 1234);

    // When you get the address of a const variable, you get a const single-item pointer.
    try expect(@TypeOf(x_ptr) == *const i32);

    // If you want to mutate the value, you'd need an address of a mutable variable:
    var y: i32 = 5678;
    const y_ptr = &y;
    try expect(@TypeOf(y_ptr) == *i32);
    y_ptr.* += 1;
    try expect(y_ptr.* == 5679);
}

test "pointer array access" {
    // Taking an address of an individual element gives a
    // single-item pointer. This kind of pointer
    // does not support pointer arithmetic.
    var array = [_]u8{ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 };
    const ptr = &array[2];
    try expect(@TypeOf(ptr) == *u8);

    try expect(array[2] == 3);
    ptr.* += 1;
    try expect(array[2] == 4);
}
Shell
$ zig test single_item_pointer_test.zig
1/2 test.address of syntax... OK
2/2 test.pointer array access... OK
All 2 tests passed.

Zig supports pointer arithmetic. It's better to assign the pointer to [*]T and increment that variable. For example, directly incrementing the pointer from a slice will corrupt it.

pointer_arthemtic.zig
const expect = @import("std").testing.expect;

test "pointer arithmetic with many-item pointer" {
    const array = [_]i32{ 1, 2, 3, 4 };
    var ptr: [*]const i32 = &array;

    try expect(ptr[0] == 1);
    ptr += 1;
    try expect(ptr[0] == 2);
}

test "pointer arithmetic with slices" {
    var array = [_]i32{ 1, 2, 3, 4 };
    var length: usize = 0;
    var slice = array[length..array.len];

    try expect(slice[0] == 1);
    try expect(slice.len == 4);

    slice.ptr += 1;
    // now the slice is in an bad state since len has not been updated

    try expect(slice[0] == 2);
    try expect(slice.len == 4);
}
Shell
$ zig test pointer_arthemtic.zig
1/2 test.pointer arithmetic with many-item pointer... OK
2/2 test.pointer arithmetic with slices... OK
All 2 tests passed.

In Zig, we generally prefer Slices rather than Sentinel-Terminated Pointers. You can turn an array or pointer into a slice using slice syntax.

Slices have bounds checking and are therefore protected against this kind of undefined behavior. This is one reason we prefer slices to pointers.

slice_bounds.zig
const expect = @import("std").testing.expect;

test "pointer slicing" {
    var array = [_]u8{ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 };
    const slice = array[2..4];
    try expect(slice.len == 2);

    try expect(array[3] == 4);
    slice[1] += 1;
    try expect(array[3] == 5);
}
Shell
$ zig test slice_bounds.zig
1/1 test.pointer slicing... OK
All 1 tests passed.

Pointers work at compile-time too, as long as the code does not depend on an undefined memory layout:

comptime_pointers.zig
const expect = @import("std").testing.expect;

test "comptime pointers" {
    comptime {
        var x: i32 = 1;
        const ptr = &x;
        ptr.* += 1;
        x += 1;
        try expect(ptr.* == 3);
    }
}
Shell
$ zig test comptime_pointers.zig
1/1 test.comptime pointers... OK
All 1 tests passed.

To convert an integer address into a pointer, use @intToPtr. To convert a pointer to an integer, use @ptrToInt:

integer_pointer_conversion.zig
const expect = @import("std").testing.expect;

test "@ptrToInt and @intToPtr" {
    const ptr = @intToPtr(*i32, 0xdeadbee0);
    const addr = @ptrToInt(ptr);
    try expect(@TypeOf(addr) == usize);
    try expect(addr == 0xdeadbee0);
}
Shell
$ zig test integer_pointer_conversion.zig
1/1 test.@ptrToInt and @intToPtr... OK
All 1 tests passed.

Zig is able to preserve memory addresses in comptime code, as long as the pointer is never dereferenced:

comptime_pointer_conversion.zig
const expect = @import("std").testing.expect;

test "comptime @intToPtr" {
    comptime {
        // Zig is able to do this at compile-time, as long as
        // ptr is never dereferenced.
        const ptr = @intToPtr(*i32, 0xdeadbee0);
        const addr = @ptrToInt(ptr);
        try expect(@TypeOf(addr) == usize);
        try expect(addr == 0xdeadbee0);
    }
}
Shell
$ zig test comptime_pointer_conversion.zig
1/1 test.comptime @intToPtr... OK
All 1 tests passed.

See also:

volatile §

Loads and stores are assumed to not have side effects. If a given load or store should have side effects, such as Memory Mapped Input/Output (MMIO), use volatile. In the following code, loads and stores with mmio_ptr are guaranteed to all happen and in the same order as in source code:

volatile.zig
const expect = @import("std").testing.expect;

test "volatile" {
    const mmio_ptr = @intToPtr(*volatile u8, 0x12345678);
    try expect(@TypeOf(mmio_ptr) == *volatile u8);
}
Shell
$ zig test volatile.zig
1/1 test.volatile... OK
All 1 tests passed.

Note that volatile is unrelated to concurrency and Atomics. If you see code that is using volatile for something other than Memory Mapped Input/Output, it is probably a bug.

To convert one pointer type to another, use @ptrCast. This is an unsafe operation that Zig cannot protect you against. Use @ptrCast only when other conversions are not possible.

pointer_casting.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

test "pointer casting" {
    const bytes align(@alignOf(u32)) = [_]u8{ 0x12, 0x12, 0x12, 0x12 };
    const u32_ptr = @ptrCast(*const u32, &bytes);
    try expect(u32_ptr.* == 0x12121212);

    // Even this example is contrived - there are better ways to do the above than
    // pointer casting. For example, using a slice narrowing cast:
    const u32_value = std.mem.bytesAsSlice(u32, bytes[0..])[0];
    try expect(u32_value == 0x12121212);

    // And even another way, the most straightforward way to do it:
    try expect(@bitCast(u32, bytes) == 0x12121212);
}

test "pointer child type" {
    // pointer types have a `child` field which tells you the type they point to.
    try expect(@typeInfo(*u32).Pointer.child == u32);
}
Shell
$ zig test pointer_casting.zig
1/2 test.pointer casting... OK
2/2 test.pointer child type... OK
All 2 tests passed.

Alignment §

Each type has an alignment - a number of bytes such that, when a value of the type is loaded from or stored to memory, the memory address must be evenly divisible by this number. You can use @alignOf to find out this value for any type.

Alignment depends on the CPU architecture, but is always a power of two, and less than 1 << 29.

In Zig, a pointer type has an alignment value. If the value is equal to the alignment of the underlying type, it can be omitted from the type:

variable_alignment.zig
const std = @import("std");
const builtin = @import("builtin");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

test "variable alignment" {
    var x: i32 = 1234;
    const align_of_i32 = @alignOf(@TypeOf(x));
    try expect(@TypeOf(&x) == *i32);
    try expect(*i32 == *align(align_of_i32) i32);
    if (builtin.target.cpu.arch == .x86_64) {
        try expect(@typeInfo(*i32).Pointer.alignment == 4);
    }
}
Shell
$ zig test variable_alignment.zig
1/1 test.variable alignment... OK
All 1 tests passed.

In the same way that a *i32 can be coerced to a *const i32, a pointer with a larger alignment can be implicitly cast to a pointer with a smaller alignment, but not vice versa.

You can specify alignment on variables and functions. If you do this, then pointers to them get the specified alignment:

variable_func_alignment.zig
const expect = @import("std").testing.expect;

var foo: u8 align(4) = 100;

test "global variable alignment" {
    try expect(@typeInfo(@TypeOf(&foo)).Pointer.alignment == 4);
    try expect(@TypeOf(&foo) == *align(4) u8);
    const as_pointer_to_array: *align(4) [1]u8 = &foo;
    const as_slice: []align(4) u8 = as_pointer_to_array;
    const as_unaligned_slice: []u8 = as_slice;
    try expect(as_unaligned_slice[0] == 100);
}

fn derp() align(@sizeOf(usize) * 2) i32 {
    return 1234;
}
fn noop1() align(1) void {}
fn noop4() align(4) void {}

test "function alignment" {
    try expect(derp() == 1234);
    try expect(@TypeOf(noop1) == fn () align(1) void);
    try expect(@TypeOf(noop4) == fn () align(4) void);
    noop1();
    noop4();
}
Shell
$ zig test variable_func_alignment.zig
1/2 test.global variable alignment... OK
2/2 test.function alignment... OK
All 2 tests passed.

If you have a pointer or a slice that has a small alignment, but you know that it actually has a bigger alignment, use @alignCast to change the pointer into a more aligned pointer. This is a no-op at runtime, but inserts a safety check:

test.zig
const std = @import("std");

test "pointer alignment safety" {
    var array align(4) = [_]u32{ 0x11111111, 0x11111111 };
    const bytes = std.mem.sliceAsBytes(array[0..]);
    try std.testing.expect(foo(bytes) == 0x11111111);
}
fn foo(bytes: []u8) u32 {
    const slice4 = bytes[1..5];
    const int_slice = std.mem.bytesAsSlice(u32, @alignCast(4, slice4));
    return int_slice[0];
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig
1/1 test.pointer alignment safety... thread 3566936 panic: incorrect alignment
docgen_tmp/test.zig:10:43: 0x2117ab in foo (test)
    const int_slice = std.mem.bytesAsSlice(u32, @alignCast(4, slice4));
                                          ^
docgen_tmp/test.zig:6:31: 0x2116cf in test.pointer alignment safety (test)
    try std.testing.expect(foo(bytes) == 0x11111111);
                              ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/test_runner.zig:63:28: 0x212f93 in main (test)
        } else test_fn.func();
                           ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:604:22: 0x2120fc in posixCallMainAndExit (test)
            root.main();
                     ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:376:5: 0x211c01 in _start (test)
    @call(.{ .modifier = .never_inline }, posixCallMainAndExit, .{});
    ^
error: the following test command crashed:
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-local-cache/o/886dbde2c2a21074c6c6d3ff9b83336b/test

allowzero §

This pointer attribute allows a pointer to have address zero. This is only ever needed on the freestanding OS target, where the address zero is mappable. If you want to represent null pointers, use Optional Pointers instead. Optional Pointers with allowzero are not the same size as pointers. In this code example, if the pointer did not have the allowzero attribute, this would be a Pointer Cast Invalid Null panic:

allowzero.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

test "allowzero" {
    var zero: usize = 0;
    var ptr = @intToPtr(*allowzero i32, zero);
    try expect(@ptrToInt(ptr) == 0);
}
Shell
$ zig test allowzero.zig
1/1 test.allowzero... OK
All 1 tests passed.

Sentinel-Terminated Pointers §

The syntax [*:x]T describes a pointer that has a length determined by a sentinel value. This provides protection against buffer overflow and overreads.

test.zig
const std = @import("std");

// This is also available as `std.c.printf`.
pub extern "c" fn printf(format: [*:0]const u8, ...) c_int;

pub fn main() anyerror!void {
    _ = printf("Hello, world!\n"); // OK

    const msg = "Hello, world!\n";
    const non_null_terminated_msg: [msg.len]u8 = msg.*;
    _ = printf(&non_null_terminated_msg);
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe test.zig -lc
docgen_tmp/test.zig:11:16: error: expected type '[*:0]const u8', found '*const [14]u8'
    _ = printf(&non_null_terminated_msg);
               ^~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
docgen_tmp/test.zig:11:16: note: destination pointer requires '0' sentinel
docgen_tmp/test.zig:4:35: note: parameter type declared here
pub extern "c" fn printf(format: [*:0]const u8, ...) c_int;
                                 ~^~~~~~~~~~~~
referenced by:
    comptime_0: /home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:59:50
    remaining reference traces hidden; use '-freference-trace' to see all reference traces


See also:

Slices §

test.zig
const expect = @import("std").testing.expect;

test "basic slices" {
    var array = [_]i32{ 1, 2, 3, 4 };
    // A slice is a pointer and a length. The difference between an array and
    // a slice is that the array's length is part of the type and known at
    // compile-time, whereas the slice's length is known at runtime.
    // Both can be accessed with the `len` field.
    var known_at_runtime_zero: usize = 0;
    const slice = array[known_at_runtime_zero..array.len];
    try expect(@TypeOf(slice) == []i32);
    try expect(&slice[0] == &array[0]);
    try expect(slice.len == array.len);

    // If you slice with comptime-known start and end positions, the result is
    // a pointer to an array, rather than a slice.
    const array_ptr = array[0..array.len];
    try expect(@TypeOf(array_ptr) == *[array.len]i32);

    // Using the address-of operator on a slice gives a single-item pointer,
    // while using the `ptr` field gives a many-item pointer.
    try expect(@TypeOf(slice.ptr) == [*]i32);
    try expect(@TypeOf(&slice[0]) == *i32);
    try expect(@ptrToInt(slice.ptr) == @ptrToInt(&slice[0]));

    // Slices have array bounds checking. If you try to access something out
    // of bounds, you'll get a safety check failure:
    slice[10] += 1;

    // Note that `slice.ptr` does not invoke safety checking, while `&slice[0]`
    // asserts that the slice has len >= 1.
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig
1/1 test.basic slices... thread 3567298 panic: index out of bounds: index 10, len 4
docgen_tmp/test.zig:28:10: 0x2119c6 in test.basic slices (test)
    slice[10] += 1;
         ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/test_runner.zig:63:28: 0x2131b3 in main (test)
        } else test_fn.func();
                           ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:604:22: 0x21233c in posixCallMainAndExit (test)
            root.main();
                     ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:376:5: 0x211e41 in _start (test)
    @call(.{ .modifier = .never_inline }, posixCallMainAndExit, .{});
    ^
error: the following test command crashed:
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-local-cache/o/886dbde2c2a21074c6c6d3ff9b83336b/test

This is one reason we prefer slices to pointers.

slices.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;
const mem = std.mem;
const fmt = std.fmt;

test "using slices for strings" {
    // Zig has no concept of strings. String literals are const pointers
    // to null-terminated arrays of u8, and by convention parameters
    // that are "strings" are expected to be UTF-8 encoded slices of u8.
    // Here we coerce *const [5:0]u8 and *const [6:0]u8 to []const u8
    const hello: []const u8 = "hello";
    const world: []const u8 = "世界";

    var all_together: [100]u8 = undefined;
    // You can use slice syntax on an array to convert an array into a slice.
    const all_together_slice = all_together[0..];
    // String concatenation example.
    const hello_world = try fmt.bufPrint(all_together_slice, "{s} {s}", .{ hello, world });

    // Generally, you can use UTF-8 and not worry about whether something is a
    // string. If you don't need to deal with individual characters, no need
    // to decode.
    try expect(mem.eql(u8, hello_world, "hello 世界"));
}

test "slice pointer" {
    var a: []u8 = undefined;
    try expect(@TypeOf(a) == []u8);
    var array: [10]u8 = undefined;
    const ptr = &array;
    try expect(@TypeOf(ptr) == *[10]u8);

    // A pointer to an array can be sliced just like an array:
    var start: usize = 0;
    var end: usize = 5;
    const slice = ptr[start..end];
    slice[2] = 3;
    try expect(slice[2] == 3);
    // The slice is mutable because we sliced a mutable pointer.
    try expect(@TypeOf(slice) == []u8);

    // Again, slicing with constant indexes will produce another pointer to an array:
    const ptr2 = slice[2..3];
    try expect(ptr2.len == 1);
    try expect(ptr2[0] == 3);
    try expect(@TypeOf(ptr2) == *[1]u8);
}
Shell
$ zig test slices.zig
1/2 test.using slices for strings... OK
2/2 test.slice pointer... OK
All 2 tests passed.

See also:

Sentinel-Terminated Slices §

The syntax [:x]T is a slice which has a runtime known length and also guarantees a sentinel value at the element indexed by the length. The type does not guarantee that there are no sentinel elements before that. Sentinel-terminated slices allow element access to the len index.

null_terminated_slice.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

test "null terminated slice" {
    const slice: [:0]const u8 = "hello";

    try expect(slice.len == 5);
    try expect(slice[5] == 0);
}
Shell
$ zig test null_terminated_slice.zig
1/1 test.null terminated slice... OK
All 1 tests passed.

Sentinel-terminated slices can also be created using a variation of the slice syntax data[start..end :x], where data is a many-item pointer, array or slice and x is the sentinel value.

null_terminated_slicing.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

test "null terminated slicing" {
    var array = [_]u8{ 3, 2, 1, 0, 3, 2, 1, 0 };
    var runtime_length: usize = 3;
    const slice = array[0..runtime_length :0];

    try expect(@TypeOf(slice) == [:0]u8);
    try expect(slice.len == 3);
}
Shell
$ zig test null_terminated_slicing.zig
1/1 test.null terminated slicing... OK
All 1 tests passed.

Sentinel-terminated slicing asserts that the element in the sentinel position of the backing data is actually the sentinel value. If this is not the case, safety-protected Undefined Behavior results.

test.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

test "sentinel mismatch" {
    var array = [_]u8{ 3, 2, 1, 0 };

    // Creating a sentinel-terminated slice from the array with a length of 2
    // will result in the value `1` occupying the sentinel element position.
    // This does not match the indicated sentinel value of `0` and will lead
    // to a runtime panic.
    var runtime_length: usize = 2;
    const slice = array[0..runtime_length :0];

    _ = slice;
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig
1/1 test.sentinel mismatch... thread 3567804 panic: sentinel mismatch: expected 0, found 1
docgen_tmp/test.zig:12:24: 0x211604 in test.sentinel mismatch (test)
    const slice = array[0..runtime_length :0];
                       ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/test_runner.zig:63:28: 0x212fc3 in main (test)
        } else test_fn.func();
                           ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:604:22: 0x211f6c in posixCallMainAndExit (test)
            root.main();
                     ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:376:5: 0x211a71 in _start (test)
    @call(.{ .modifier = .never_inline }, posixCallMainAndExit, .{});
    ^
error: the following test command crashed:
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-local-cache/o/886dbde2c2a21074c6c6d3ff9b83336b/test

See also:

struct §

structs.zig
// Declare a struct.
// Zig gives no guarantees about the order of fields and the size of
// the struct but the fields are guaranteed to be ABI-aligned.
const Point = struct {
    x: f32,
    y: f32,
};

// Maybe we want to pass it to OpenGL so we want to be particular about
// how the bytes are arranged.
const Point2 = packed struct {
    x: f32,
    y: f32,
};


// Declare an instance of a struct.
const p = Point {
    .x = 0.12,
    .y = 0.34,
};

// Maybe we're not ready to fill out some of the fields.
var p2 = Point {
    .x = 0.12,
    .y = undefined,
};

// Structs can have methods
// Struct methods are not special, they are only namespaced
// functions that you can call with dot syntax.
const Vec3 = struct {
    x: f32,
    y: f32,
    z: f32,

    pub fn init(x: f32, y: f32, z: f32) Vec3 {
        return Vec3 {
            .x = x,
            .y = y,
            .z = z,
        };
    }

    pub fn dot(self: Vec3, other: Vec3) f32 {
        return self.x * other.x + self.y * other.y + self.z * other.z;
    }
};

const expect = @import("std").testing.expect;
test "dot product" {
    const v1 = Vec3.init(1.0, 0.0, 0.0);
    const v2 = Vec3.init(0.0, 1.0, 0.0);
    try expect(v1.dot(v2) == 0.0);

    // Other than being available to call with dot syntax, struct methods are
    // not special. You can reference them as any other declaration inside
    // the struct:
    try expect(Vec3.dot(v1, v2) == 0.0);
}

// Structs can have declarations.
// Structs can have 0 fields.
const Empty = struct {
    pub const PI = 3.14;
};
test "struct namespaced variable" {
    try expect(Empty.PI == 3.14);
    try expect(@sizeOf(Empty) == 0);

    // you can still instantiate an empty struct
    const does_nothing = Empty {};

    _ = does_nothing;
}

// struct field order is determined by the compiler for optimal performance.
// however, you can still calculate a struct base pointer given a field pointer:
fn setYBasedOnX(x: *f32, y: f32) void {
    const point = @fieldParentPtr(Point, "x", x);
    point.y = y;
}
test "field parent pointer" {
    var point = Point {
        .x = 0.1234,
        .y = 0.5678,
    };
    setYBasedOnX(&point.x, 0.9);
    try expect(point.y == 0.9);
}

// You can return a struct from a function. This is how we do generics
// in Zig:
fn LinkedList(comptime T: type) type {
    return struct {
        pub const Node = struct {
            prev: ?*Node,
            next: ?*Node,
            data: T,
        };

        first: ?*Node,
        last:  ?*Node,
        len:   usize,
    };
}

test "linked list" {
    // Functions called at compile-time are memoized. This means you can
    // do this:
    try expect(LinkedList(i32) == LinkedList(i32));

    var list = LinkedList(i32) {
        .first = null,
        .last = null,
        .len = 0,
    };
    try expect(list.len == 0);

    // Since types are first class values you can instantiate the type
    // by assigning it to a variable:
    const ListOfInts = LinkedList(i32);
    try expect(ListOfInts == LinkedList(i32));

    var node = ListOfInts.Node {
        .prev = null,
        .next = null,
        .data = 1234,
    };
    var list2 = LinkedList(i32) {
        .first = &node,
        .last = &node,
        .len = 1,
    };

    // When using a pointer to a struct, fields can be accessed directly,
    // without explicitly dereferencing the pointer.
    // So you can do
    try expect(list2.first.?.data == 1234);
    // instead of try expect(list2.first.?.*.data == 1234);
}
Shell
$ zig test structs.zig
1/4 test.dot product... OK
2/4 test.struct namespaced variable... OK
3/4 test.field parent pointer... OK
4/4 test.linked list... OK
All 4 tests passed.

Default Field Values §

Each struct field may have an expression indicating the default field value. Such expressions are executed at comptime, and allow the field to be omitted in a struct literal expression:

default_field_values.zig
const Foo = struct {
    a: i32 = 1234,
    b: i32,
};

test "default struct initialization fields" {
    const x = Foo{
        .b = 5,
    };
    if (x.a + x.b != 1239) {
        @compileError("it's even comptime known!");
    }
}
Shell
$ zig test default_field_values.zig
1/1 test.default struct initialization fields... OK
All 1 tests passed.

extern struct §

An extern struct has in-memory layout guaranteed to match the C ABI for the target.

This kind of struct should only be used for compatibility with the C ABI. Every other use case should be solved with packed struct or normal struct.

See also:

packed struct §

Unlike normal structs, packed structs have guaranteed in-memory layout:

  • Fields remain in the order declared, least to most significant.
  • There is no padding between fields.
  • Zig supports arbitrary width Integers and although normally, integers with fewer than 8 bits will still use 1 byte of memory, in packed structs, they use exactly their bit width.
  • bool fields use exactly 1 bit.
  • An enum field uses exactly the bit width of its integer tag type.
  • A packed union field uses exactly the bit width of the union field with the largest bit width.
  • Non-ABI-aligned fields are packed into the smallest possible ABI-aligned integers in accordance with the target endianness.

This means that a packed struct can participate in a @bitCast or a @ptrCast to reinterpret memory. This even works at comptime:

packed_structs.zig
const std = @import("std");
const native_endian = @import("builtin").target.cpu.arch.endian();
const expect = std.testing.expect;

const Full = packed struct {
    number: u16,
};
const Divided = packed struct {
    half1: u8,
    quarter3: u4,
    quarter4: u4,
};

test "@bitCast between packed structs" {
    try doTheTest();
    comptime try doTheTest();
}

fn doTheTest() !void {
    try expect(@sizeOf(Full) == 2);
    try expect(@sizeOf(Divided) == 2);
    var full = Full{ .number = 0x1234 };
    var divided = @bitCast(Divided, full);
    try expect(divided.half1 == 0x34);
    try expect(divided.quarter3 == 0x2);
    try expect(divided.quarter4 == 0x1);

    var ordered = @bitCast([2]u8, full);
    switch (native_endian) {
        .Big => {
            try expect(ordered[0] == 0x12);
            try expect(ordered[1] == 0x34);
        },
        .Little => {
            try expect(ordered[0] == 0x34);
            try expect(ordered[1] == 0x12);
        },
    }
}
Shell
$ zig test packed_structs.zig
1/1 test.@bitCast between packed structs... OK
All 1 tests passed.

Zig allows the address to be taken of a non-byte-aligned field:

pointer_to_non-byte_aligned_field.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

const BitField = packed struct {
    a: u3,
    b: u3,
    c: u2,
};

var foo = BitField{
    .a = 1,
    .b = 2,
    .c = 3,
};

test "pointer to non-byte-aligned field" {
    const ptr = &foo.b;
    try expect(ptr.* == 2);
}
Shell
$ zig test pointer_to_non-byte_aligned_field.zig
1/1 test.pointer to non-byte-aligned field... OK
All 1 tests passed.

However, the pointer to a non-byte-aligned field has special properties and cannot be passed when a normal pointer is expected:

test.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

const BitField = packed struct {
    a: u3,
    b: u3,
    c: u2,
};

var bit_field = BitField{
    .a = 1,
    .b = 2,
    .c = 3,
};

test "pointer to non-bit-aligned field" {
    try expect(bar(&bit_field.b) == 2);
}

fn bar(x: *const u3) u3 {
    return x.*;
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig
docgen_tmp/test.zig:17:20: error: expected type '*const u3', found '*align(0:3:1) u3'
    try expect(bar(&bit_field.b) == 2);
                   ^~~~~~~~~~~~
docgen_tmp/test.zig:17:20: note: pointer host size '1' cannot cast into pointer host size '0'
docgen_tmp/test.zig:17:20: note: pointer bit offset '3' cannot cast into pointer bit offset '0'
docgen_tmp/test.zig:20:11: note: parameter type declared here
fn bar(x: *const u3) u3 {
          ^~~~~~~~~

In this case, the function bar cannot be called because the pointer to the non-ABI-aligned field mentions the bit offset, but the function expects an ABI-aligned pointer.

Pointers to non-ABI-aligned fields share the same address as the other fields within their host integer:

packed_struct_field_addrs.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

const BitField = packed struct {
    a: u3,
    b: u3,
    c: u2,
};

var bit_field = BitField{
    .a = 1,
    .b = 2,
    .c = 3,
};

test "pointers of sub-byte-aligned fields share addresses" {
    try expect(@ptrToInt(&bit_field.a) == @ptrToInt(&bit_field.b));
    try expect(@ptrToInt(&bit_field.a) == @ptrToInt(&bit_field.c));
}
Shell
$ zig test packed_struct_field_addrs.zig
1/1 test.pointers of sub-byte-aligned fields share addresses... OK
All 1 tests passed.

This can be observed with @bitOffsetOf and offsetOf:

test_bitOffsetOf_offsetOf.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

const BitField = packed struct {
    a: u3,
    b: u3,
    c: u2,
};

test "pointer to non-bit-aligned field" {
    comptime {
        try expect(@bitOffsetOf(BitField, "a") == 0);
        try expect(@bitOffsetOf(BitField, "b") == 3);
        try expect(@bitOffsetOf(BitField, "c") == 6);

        try expect(@offsetOf(BitField, "a") == 0);
        try expect(@offsetOf(BitField, "b") == 0);
        try expect(@offsetOf(BitField, "c") == 0);
    }
}
Shell
$ zig test test_bitOffsetOf_offsetOf.zig
1/1 test.pointer to non-bit-aligned field... OK
All 1 tests passed.

Packed structs have the same alignment as their backing integer, however, overaligned pointers to packed structs can override this:

overaligned_packed_struct.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

const S = packed struct {
    a: u32,
    b: u32,
};
test "overaligned pointer to packed struct" {
    var foo: S align(4) = .{ .a = 1, .b = 2 };
    const ptr: *align(4) S = &foo;
    const ptr_to_b: *u32 = &ptr.b;
    try expect(ptr_to_b.* == 2);
}
Shell
$ zig test overaligned_packed_struct.zig
1/1 test.overaligned pointer to packed struct... OK
All 1 tests passed.

It's also possible to set alignment of struct fields:

test_aligned_struct_fields.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expectEqual = std.testing.expectEqual;

test "aligned struct fields" {
    const S = struct {
        a: u32 align(2),
        b: u32 align(64),
    };
    var foo = S{ .a = 1, .b = 2 };

    try expectEqual(64, @alignOf(S));
    try expectEqual(*align(2) u32, @TypeOf(&foo.a));
    try expectEqual(*align(64) u32, @TypeOf(&foo.b));
}
Shell
$ zig test test_aligned_struct_fields.zig
1/1 test.aligned struct fields... OK
All 1 tests passed.

Using packed structs with volatile is problematic, and may be a compile error in the future. For details on this subscribe to this issue. TODO update these docs with a recommendation on how to use packed structs with MMIO (the use case for volatile packed structs) once this issue is resolved. Don't worry, there will be a good solution for this use case in zig.

Struct Naming §

Since all structs are anonymous, Zig infers the type name based on a few rules.

  • If the struct is in the initialization expression of a variable, it gets named after that variable.
  • If the struct is in the return expression, it gets named after the function it is returning from, with the parameter values serialized.
  • Otherwise, the struct gets a name such as (anonymous struct at file.zig:7:38).
  • If the struct is declared inside another struct, it gets named after both the parent struct and the name inferred by the previous rules, separated by a dot.
struct_name.zig
const std = @import("std");

pub fn main() void {
    const Foo = struct {};
    std.debug.print("variable: {s}\n", .{@typeName(Foo)});
    std.debug.print("anonymous: {s}\n", .{@typeName(struct {})});
    std.debug.print("function: {s}\n", .{@typeName(List(i32))});
}

fn List(comptime T: type) type {
    return struct {
        x: T,
    };
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe struct_name.zig

$ ./struct_name
variable: struct_name.main.Foo
anonymous: struct_name.main__struct_3896
function: struct_name.List(i32)

Anonymous Struct Literals §

Zig allows omitting the struct type of a literal. When the result is coerced, the struct literal will directly instantiate the result location, with no copy:

struct_result.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

const Point = struct {x: i32, y: i32};

test "anonymous struct literal" {
    var pt: Point = .{
        .x = 13,
        .y = 67,
    };
    try expect(pt.x == 13);
    try expect(pt.y == 67);
}
Shell
$ zig test struct_result.zig
1/1 test.anonymous struct literal... OK
All 1 tests passed.

The struct type can be inferred. Here the result location does not include a type, and so Zig infers the type:

struct_anon.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

test "fully anonymous struct" {
    try dump(.{
        .int = @as(u32, 1234),
        .float = @as(f64, 12.34),
        .b = true,
        .s = "hi",
    });
}

fn dump(args: anytype) !void {
    try expect(args.int == 1234);
    try expect(args.float == 12.34);
    try expect(args.b);
    try expect(args.s[0] == 'h');
    try expect(args.s[1] == 'i');
}
Shell
$ zig test struct_anon.zig
1/1 test.fully anonymous struct... OK
All 1 tests passed.

Anonymous structs can be created without specifying field names, and are referred to as "tuples".

The fields are implicitly named using numbers starting from 0. Because their names are integers, the @"0" syntax must be used to access them. Names inside @"" are always recognised as identifiers.

Like arrays, tuples have a .len field, can be indexed and work with the ++ and ** operators. They can also be iterated over with inline for.

tuple.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

test "tuple" {
    const values = .{
        @as(u32, 1234),
        @as(f64, 12.34),
        true,
        "hi",
    } ++ .{false} ** 2;
    try expect(values[0] == 1234);
    try expect(values[4] == false);
    inline for (values) |v, i| {
        if (i != 2) continue;
        try expect(v);
    }
    try expect(values.len == 6);
    try expect(values.@"3"[0] == 'h');
}
Shell
$ zig test tuple.zig
1/1 test.tuple... OK
All 1 tests passed.

See also:

enum §

enums.zig
const expect = @import("std").testing.expect;
const mem = @import("std").mem;

// Declare an enum.
const Type = enum {
    ok,
    not_ok,
};

// Declare a specific instance of the enum variant.
const c = Type.ok;

// If you want access to the ordinal value of an enum, you
// can specify the tag type.
const Value = enum(u2) {
    zero,
    one,
    two,
};

// Now you can cast between u2 and Value.
// The ordinal value starts from 0, counting up for each member.
test "enum ordinal value" {
    try expect(@enumToInt(Value.zero) == 0);
    try expect(@enumToInt(Value.one) == 1);
    try expect(@enumToInt(Value.two) == 2);
}

// You can override the ordinal value for an enum.
const Value2 = enum(u32) {
    hundred = 100,
    thousand = 1000,
    million = 1000000,
};
test "set enum ordinal value" {
    try expect(@enumToInt(Value2.hundred) == 100);
    try expect(@enumToInt(Value2.thousand) == 1000);
    try expect(@enumToInt(Value2.million) == 1000000);
}

// Enums can have methods, the same as structs and unions.
// Enum methods are not special, they are only namespaced
// functions that you can call with dot syntax.
const Suit = enum {
    clubs,
    spades,
    diamonds,
    hearts,

    pub fn isClubs(self: Suit) bool {
        return self == Suit.clubs;
    }
};
test "enum method" {
    const p = Suit.spades;
    try expect(!p.isClubs());
}

// An enum variant of different types can be switched upon.
const Foo = enum {
    string,
    number,
    none,
};
test "enum variant switch" {
    const p = Foo.number;
    const what_is_it = switch (p) {
        Foo.string => "this is a string",
        Foo.number => "this is a number",
        Foo.none => "this is a none",
    };
    try expect(mem.eql(u8, what_is_it, "this is a number"));
}

// @typeInfo can be used to access the integer tag type of an enum.
const Small = enum {
    one,
    two,
    three,
    four,
};
test "std.meta.Tag" {
    try expect(@typeInfo(Small).Enum.tag_type == u2);
}

// @typeInfo tells us the field count and the fields names:
test "@typeInfo" {
    try expect(@typeInfo(Small).Enum.fields.len == 4);
    try expect(mem.eql(u8, @typeInfo(Small).Enum.fields[1].name, "two"));
}

// @tagName gives a [:0]const u8 representation of an enum value:
test "@tagName" {
    try expect(mem.eql(u8, @tagName(Small.three), "three"));
}
Shell
$ zig test enums.zig
1/7 test.enum ordinal value... OK
2/7 test.set enum ordinal value... OK
3/7 test.enum method... OK
4/7 test.enum variant switch... OK
5/7 test.std.meta.Tag... OK
6/7 test.@typeInfo... OK
7/7 test.@tagName... OK
All 7 tests passed.

See also:

extern enum §

By default, enums are not guaranteed to be compatible with the C ABI:

test.zig
const Foo = enum { a, b, c };
export fn entry(foo: Foo) void { _ = foo; }
Shell
$ zig build-obj test.zig
docgen_tmp/test.zig:2:17: error: parameter of type 'test.Foo' not allowed in function with calling convention 'C'
export fn entry(foo: Foo) void { _ = foo; }
                ^~~~~~~~
docgen_tmp/test.zig:2:17: note: enum tag type 'u2' is not extern compatible
docgen_tmp/test.zig:2:17: note: only integers with power of two bits are extern compatible
docgen_tmp/test.zig:1:13: note: enum declared here
const Foo = enum { a, b, c };
            ^~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

For a C-ABI-compatible enum, provide an explicit tag type to the enum:

test.zig
const Foo = enum(c_int) { a, b, c };
export fn entry(foo: Foo) void { _ = foo; }
Shell
$ zig build-obj test.zig

Enum Literals §

Enum literals allow specifying the name of an enum field without specifying the enum type:

test_enum_literals.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

const Color = enum {
    auto,
    off,
    on,
};

test "enum literals" {
    const color1: Color = .auto;
    const color2 = Color.auto;
    try expect(color1 == color2);
}

test "switch using enum literals" {
    const color = Color.on;
    const result = switch (color) {
        .auto => false,
        .on => true,
        .off => false,
    };
    try expect(result);
}
Shell
$ zig test test_enum_literals.zig
1/2 test.enum literals... OK
2/2 test.switch using enum literals... OK
All 2 tests passed.

Non-exhaustive enum §

A Non-exhaustive enum can be created by adding a trailing '_' field. It must specify a tag type and cannot consume every enumeration value.

@intToEnum on a non-exhaustive enum involves the safety semantics of @intCast to the integer tag type, but beyond that always results in a well-defined enum value.

A switch on a non-exhaustive enum can include a '_' prong as an alternative to an else prong with the difference being that it makes it a compile error if all the known tag names are not handled by the switch.

test_switch_non-exhaustive.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

const Number = enum(u8) {
    one,
    two,
    three,
    _,
};

test "switch on non-exhaustive enum" {
    const number = Number.one;
    const result = switch (number) {
        .one => true,
        .two,
        .three => false,
        _ => false,
    };
    try expect(result);
    const is_one = switch (number) {
        .one => true,
        else => false,
    };
    try expect(is_one);
}
Shell
$ zig test test_switch_non-exhaustive.zig
1/1 test.switch on non-exhaustive enum... OK
All 1 tests passed.

union §

A bare union defines a set of possible types that a value can be as a list of fields. Only one field can be active at a time. The in-memory representation of bare unions is not guaranteed. Bare unions cannot be used to reinterpret memory. For that, use @ptrCast, or use an extern union or a packed union which have guaranteed in-memory layout. Accessing the non-active field is safety-checked Undefined Behavior:

test.zig
const Payload = union {
    int: i64,
    float: f64,
    boolean: bool,
};
test "simple union" {
    var payload = Payload{ .int = 1234 };
    payload.float = 12.34;
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig
1/1 test.simple union... thread 3569067 panic: access of inactive union field
docgen_tmp/test.zig:8:12: 0x2115a1 in test.simple union (test)
    payload.float = 12.34;
           ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/test_runner.zig:63:28: 0x212d43 in main (test)
        } else test_fn.func();
                           ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:604:22: 0x211ecc in posixCallMainAndExit (test)
            root.main();
                     ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:376:5: 0x2119d1 in _start (test)
    @call(.{ .modifier = .never_inline }, posixCallMainAndExit, .{});
    ^
error: the following test command crashed:
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-local-cache/o/886dbde2c2a21074c6c6d3ff9b83336b/test

You can activate another field by assigning the entire union:

test_simple_union.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

const Payload = union {
    int: i64,
    float: f64,
    boolean: bool,
};
test "simple union" {
    var payload = Payload{ .int = 1234 };
    try expect(payload.int == 1234);
    payload = Payload{ .float = 12.34 };
    try expect(payload.float == 12.34);
}
Shell
$ zig test test_simple_union.zig
1/1 test.simple union... OK
All 1 tests passed.

In order to use switch with a union, it must be a Tagged union.

To initialize a union when the tag is a comptime-known name, see @unionInit.

Tagged union §

Unions can be declared with an enum tag type. This turns the union into a tagged union, which makes it eligible to use with switch expressions. Tagged unions coerce to their tag type: Type Coercion: unions and enums.

test_switch_tagged_union.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

const ComplexTypeTag = enum {
    ok,
    not_ok,
};
const ComplexType = union(ComplexTypeTag) {
    ok: u8,
    not_ok: void,
};

test "switch on tagged union" {
    const c = ComplexType{ .ok = 42 };
    try expect(@as(ComplexTypeTag, c) == ComplexTypeTag.ok);

    switch (c) {
        ComplexTypeTag.ok => |value| try expect(value == 42),
        ComplexTypeTag.not_ok => unreachable,
    }
}

test "get tag type" {
    try expect(std.meta.Tag(ComplexType) == ComplexTypeTag);
}

test "coerce to enum" {
    const c1 = ComplexType{ .ok = 42 };
    const c2 = ComplexType.not_ok;

    try expect(c1 == .ok);
    try expect(c2 == .not_ok);
}
Shell
$ zig test test_switch_tagged_union.zig
1/3 test.switch on tagged union... OK
2/3 test.get tag type... OK
3/3 test.coerce to enum... OK
All 3 tests passed.

In order to modify the payload of a tagged union in a switch expression, place a * before the variable name to make it a pointer:

test_switch_modify_tagged_union.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

const ComplexTypeTag = enum {
    ok,
    not_ok,
};
const ComplexType = union(ComplexTypeTag) {
    ok: u8,
    not_ok: void,
};

test "modify tagged union in switch" {
    var c = ComplexType{ .ok = 42 };
    try expect(@as(ComplexTypeTag, c) == ComplexTypeTag.ok);

    switch (c) {
        ComplexTypeTag.ok => |*value| value.* += 1,
        ComplexTypeTag.not_ok => unreachable,
    }

    try expect(c.ok == 43);
}
Shell
$ zig test test_switch_modify_tagged_union.zig
1/1 test.modify tagged union in switch... OK
All 1 tests passed.

Unions can be made to infer the enum tag type. Further, unions can have methods just like structs and enums.

test_union_method.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

const Variant = union(enum) {
    int: i32,
    boolean: bool,

    // void can be omitted when inferring enum tag type.
    none,

    fn truthy(self: Variant) bool {
        return switch (self) {
            Variant.int => |x_int| x_int != 0,
            Variant.boolean => |x_bool| x_bool,
            Variant.none => false,
        };
    }
};

test "union method" {
    var v1 = Variant{ .int = 1 };
    var v2 = Variant{ .boolean = false };

    try expect(v1.truthy());
    try expect(!v2.truthy());
}
Shell
$ zig test test_union_method.zig
1/1 test.union method... OK
All 1 tests passed.

@tagName can be used to return a comptime [:0]const u8 value representing the field name:

test_tagName.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

const Small2 = union(enum) {
    a: i32,
    b: bool,
    c: u8,
};
test "@tagName" {
    try expect(std.mem.eql(u8, @tagName(Small2.a), "a"));
}
Shell
$ zig test test_tagName.zig
1/1 test.@tagName... OK
All 1 tests passed.

extern union §

An extern union has memory layout guaranteed to be compatible with the target C ABI.

See also:

packed union §

A packed union has well-defined in-memory layout and is eligible to be in a packed struct.

Anonymous Union Literals §

Anonymous Struct Literals syntax can be used to initialize unions without specifying the type:

anon_union.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

const Number = union {
    int: i32,
    float: f64,
};

test "anonymous union literal syntax" {
    var i: Number = .{.int = 42};
    var f = makeNumber();
    try expect(i.int == 42);
    try expect(f.float == 12.34);
}

fn makeNumber() Number {
    return .{.float = 12.34};
}
Shell
$ zig test anon_union.zig
1/1 test.anonymous union literal syntax... OK
All 1 tests passed.

opaque §

opaque {} declares a new type with an unknown (but non-zero) size and alignment. It can contain declarations the same as structs, unions, and enums.

This is typically used for type safety when interacting with C code that does not expose struct details. Example:

test.zig
const Derp = opaque {};
const Wat = opaque {};

extern fn bar(d: *Derp) void;
fn foo(w: *Wat) callconv(.C) void {
    bar(w);
}

test "call foo" {
    foo(undefined);
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig
docgen_tmp/test.zig:6:9: error: expected type '*test.Derp', found '*test.Wat'
    bar(w);
        ^
docgen_tmp/test.zig:6:9: note: pointer type child 'test.Wat' cannot cast into pointer type child 'test.Derp'
docgen_tmp/test.zig:2:13: note: opaque declared here
const Wat = opaque {};
            ^~~~~~~~~
docgen_tmp/test.zig:1:14: note: opaque declared here
const Derp = opaque {};
             ^~~~~~~~~
docgen_tmp/test.zig:4:18: note: parameter type declared here
extern fn bar(d: *Derp) void;
                 ^~~~~
referenced by:
    test.call foo: docgen_tmp/test.zig:10:5
    remaining reference traces hidden; use '-freference-trace' to see all reference traces


Blocks §

Blocks are used to limit the scope of variable declarations:

test.zig
test "access variable after block scope" {
    {
        var x: i32 = 1;
        _ = x;
    }
    x += 1;
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig
docgen_tmp/test.zig:6:5: error: use of undeclared identifier 'x'
    x += 1;
    ^

Blocks are expressions. When labeled, break can be used to return a value from the block:

test_labeled_break.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

test "labeled break from labeled block expression" {
    var y: i32 = 123;

    const x = blk: {
        y += 1;
        break :blk y;
    };
    try expect(x == 124);
    try expect(y == 124);
}
Shell
$ zig test test_labeled_break.zig
1/1 test.labeled break from labeled block expression... OK
All 1 tests passed.

Here, blk can be any name.

See also:

Shadowing §

Identifiers are never allowed to "hide" other identifiers by using the same name:

test.zig
const pi = 3.14;

test "inside test block" {
    // Let's even go inside another block
    {
        var pi: i32 = 1234;
    }
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig
docgen_tmp/test.zig:6:13: error: local variable shadows declaration of 'pi'
        var pi: i32 = 1234;
            ^~
docgen_tmp/test.zig:1:1: note: declared here
const pi = 3.14;
^~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Because of this, when you read Zig code you can always rely on an identifier to consistently mean the same thing within the scope it is defined. Note that you can, however, use the same name if the scopes are separate:

test_scopes.zig
test "separate scopes" {
    {
        const pi = 3.14;
        _ = pi;
    }
    {
        var pi: bool = true;
        _ = pi;
    }
}
Shell
$ zig test test_scopes.zig
1/1 test.separate scopes... OK
All 1 tests passed.

Empty Blocks §

An empty block is equivalent to void{}:

empty_block.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

test {
    const a = {};
    const b = void{};
    try expect(@TypeOf(a) == void);
    try expect(@TypeOf(b) == void);
    try expect(a == b);
}
Shell
$ zig test empty_block.zig
1/1 test_0... OK
All 1 tests passed.

switch §

switch.zig
const std = @import("std");
const builtin = @import("builtin");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

test "switch simple" {
    const a: u64 = 10;
    const zz: u64 = 103;

    // All branches of a switch expression must be able to be coerced to a
    // common type.
    //
    // Branches cannot fallthrough. If fallthrough behavior is desired, combine
    // the cases and use an if.
    const b = switch (a) {
        // Multiple cases can be combined via a ','
        1, 2, 3 => 0,

        // Ranges can be specified using the ... syntax. These are inclusive
        // of both ends.
        5...100 => 1,

        // Branches can be arbitrarily complex.
        101 => blk: {
            const c: u64 = 5;
            break :blk c * 2 + 1;
        },

        // Switching on arbitrary expressions is allowed as long as the
        // expression is known at compile-time.
        zz => zz,
        blk: {
            const d: u32 = 5;
            const e: u32 = 100;
            break :blk d + e;
        } => 107,

        // The else branch catches everything not already captured.
        // Else branches are mandatory unless the entire range of values
        // is handled.
        else => 9,
    };

    try expect(b == 1);
}

// Switch expressions can be used outside a function:
const os_msg = switch (builtin.target.os.tag) {
    .linux => "we found a linux user",
    else => "not a linux user",
};

// Inside a function, switch statements implicitly are compile-time
// evaluated if the target expression is compile-time known.
test "switch inside function" {
    switch (builtin.target.os.tag) {
        .fuchsia => {
            // On an OS other than fuchsia, block is not even analyzed,
            // so this compile error is not triggered.
            // On fuchsia this compile error would be triggered.
            @compileError("fuchsia not supported");
        },
        else => {},
    }
}
Shell
$ zig test switch.zig
1/2 test.switch simple... OK
2/2 test.switch inside function... OK
All 2 tests passed.

switch can be used to capture the field values of a Tagged union. Modifications to the field values can be done by placing a * before the capture variable name, turning it into a pointer.

test_switch_tagged_union.zig
const expect = @import("std").testing.expect;

test "switch on tagged union" {
    const Point = struct {
        x: u8,
        y: u8,
    };
    const Item = union(enum) {
        a: u32,
        c: Point,
        d,
        e: u32,
    };

    var a = Item{ .c = Point{ .x = 1, .y = 2 } };

    // Switching on more complex enums is allowed.
    const b = switch (a) {
        // A capture group is allowed on a match, and will return the enum
        // value matched. If the payload types of both cases are the same
        // they can be put into the same switch prong.
        Item.a, Item.e => |item| item,

        // A reference to the matched value can be obtained using `*` syntax.
        Item.c => |*item| blk: {
            item.*.x += 1;
            break :blk 6;
        },

        // No else is required if the types cases was exhaustively handled
        Item.d => 8,
    };

    try expect(b == 6);
    try expect(a.c.x == 2);
}
Shell
$ zig test test_switch_tagged_union.zig
1/1 test.switch on tagged union... OK
All 1 tests passed.

See also:

Exhaustive Switching §

When a switch expression does not have an else clause, it must exhaustively list all the possible values. Failure to do so is a compile error:

test.zig
const Color = enum {
    auto,
    off,
    on,
};

test "exhaustive switching" {
    const color = Color.off;
    switch (color) {
        Color.auto => {},
        Color.on => {},
    }
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig
docgen_tmp/test.zig:9:5: error: switch must handle all possibilities
    switch (color) {
    ^~~~~~
docgen_tmp/test.zig:3:5: note: unhandled enumeration value: 'off'
    off,
    ^~~
docgen_tmp/test.zig:1:15: note: enum 'test.Color' declared here
const Color = enum {
              ^~~~

Switching with Enum Literals §

Enum Literals can be useful to use with switch to avoid repetitively specifying enum or union types:

test_exhaustive_switch.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

const Color = enum {
    auto,
    off,
    on,
};

test "enum literals with switch" {
    const color = Color.off;
    const result = switch (color) {
        .auto => false,
        .on => false,
        .off => true,
    };
    try expect(result);
}
Shell
$ zig test test_exhaustive_switch.zig
1/1 test.enum literals with switch... OK
All 1 tests passed.

Inline switch §

Switch prongs can be marked as inline to generate the prong's body for each possible value it could have:

test_inline_switch.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;
const expectError = std.testing.expectError;

fn isFieldOptional(comptime T: type, field_index: usize) !bool {
    const fields = @typeInfo(T).Struct.fields;
    return switch (field_index) {
        // This prong is analyzed `fields.len - 1` times with `idx` being an
        // unique comptime known value each time.
        inline 0...fields.len - 1 => |idx| @typeInfo(fields[idx].field_type) == .Optional,
        else => return error.IndexOutOfBounds,
    };
}

const Struct1 = struct { a: u32, b: ?u32 };

test "using @typeInfo with runtime values" {
    var index: usize = 0;
    try expect(!try isFieldOptional(Struct1, index));
    index += 1;
    try expect(try isFieldOptional(Struct1, index));
    index += 1;
    try expectError(error.IndexOutOfBounds, isFieldOptional(Struct1, index));
}

// Calls to `isFieldOptional` on `Struct1` get unrolled to an equivalent
// of this function: 
fn isFieldOptionalUnrolled(field_index: usize) !bool {
    return switch (field_index) {
        0 => false,
        1 => true,
        else => return error.IndexOutOfBounds,
    };
}
Shell
$ zig test test_inline_switch.zig
1/1 test.using @typeInfo with runtime values... OK
All 1 tests passed.

inline else prongs can be used as a type safe alternative to inline for loops:

test_inline_else.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

const SliceTypeA = extern struct {
    len: usize,
    ptr: [*]u32,
};
const SliceTypeB = extern struct {
    ptr: [*]SliceTypeA,
    len: usize,
};
const AnySlice = union(enum) {
    a: SliceTypeA,
    b: SliceTypeB,
    c: []const u8,
    d: []AnySlice,
};

fn withFor(any: AnySlice) usize {
    const Tag = @typeInfo(AnySlice).Union.tag_type.?;
    inline for (@typeInfo(Tag).Enum.fields) |field| {
        // With `inline for` the function gets generated as
        // a series of `if` statements relying on the optimizer
        // to convert it to a switch.
        if (field.value == @enumToInt(any)) {
            return @field(any, field.name).len;
        }
    }
    // When using `inline for` the compiler doesn't know that every
    // possible case has been handled requiring an explicit `unreachable`.
    unreachable;
}

fn withSwitch(any: AnySlice) usize {
    return switch (any) {
        // With `inline else` the function is explicitly generated
        // as the desired switch and the compiler can check that
        // every possible case is handled.
        inline else => |slice| slice.len,
    };
}

test "inline for and inline else similarity" {
    var any = AnySlice{ .c = "hello" };
    try expect(withFor(any) == 5);
    try expect(withSwitch(any) == 5);
}
Shell
$ zig test test_inline_else.zig
1/1 test.inline for and inline else similarity... OK
All 1 tests passed.

When using an inline prong switching on an union an additional capture can be used to obtain the union's enum tag value.

test_inline_switch_union_tag.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

const U = union(enum) {
    a: u32,
    b: f32,
};

fn getNum(u: U) u32 {
    switch (u) {
        // Here `num` is a runtime known value that is either
        // `u.a` or `u.b` and `tag` is `u`'s comptime known tag value.
        inline else => |num, tag| {
            if (tag == .b) {
                return @floatToInt(u32, num);
            }
            return num;
        }
    }
}

test "test" {
    var u = U{ .b = 42 };
    try expect(getNum(u) == 42);
}
Shell
$ zig test test_inline_switch_union_tag.zig
1/1 test.test... OK
All 1 tests passed.

See also:

while §

A while loop is used to repeatedly execute an expression until some condition is no longer true.

while.zig
const expect = @import("std").testing.expect;

test "while basic" {
    var i: usize = 0;
    while (i < 10) {
        i += 1;
    }
    try expect(i == 10);
}
Shell
$ zig test while.zig
1/1 test.while basic... OK
All 1 tests passed.

Use break to exit a while loop early.

while.zig
const expect = @import("std").testing.expect;

test "while break" {
    var i: usize = 0;
    while (true) {
        if (i == 10)
            break;
        i += 1;
    }
    try expect(i == 10);
}
Shell
$ zig test while.zig
1/1 test.while break... OK
All 1 tests passed.

Use continue to jump back to the beginning of the loop.

while.zig
const expect = @import("std").testing.expect;

test "while continue" {
    var i: usize = 0;
    while (true) {
        i += 1;
        if (i < 10)
            continue;
        break;
    }
    try expect(i == 10);
}
Shell
$ zig test while.zig
1/1 test.while continue... OK
All 1 tests passed.

While loops support a continue expression which is executed when the loop is continued. The continue keyword respects this expression.

while.zig
const expect = @import("std").testing.expect;

test "while loop continue expression" {
    var i: usize = 0;
    while (i < 10) : (i += 1) {}
    try expect(i == 10);
}

test "while loop continue expression, more complicated" {
    var i: usize = 1;
    var j: usize = 1;
    while (i * j < 2000) : ({ i *= 2; j *= 3; }) {
        const my_ij = i * j;
        try expect(my_ij < 2000);
    }
}
Shell
$ zig test while.zig
1/2 test.while loop continue expression... OK
2/2 test.while loop continue expression, more complicated... OK
All 2 tests passed.

While loops are expressions. The result of the expression is the result of the else clause of a while loop, which is executed when the condition of the while loop is tested as false.

break, like return, accepts a value parameter. This is the result of the while expression. When you break from a while loop, the else branch is not evaluated.

while.zig
const expect = @import("std").testing.expect;

test "while else" {
    try expect(rangeHasNumber(0, 10, 5));
    try expect(!rangeHasNumber(0, 10, 15));
}

fn rangeHasNumber(begin: usize, end: usize, number: usize) bool {
    var i = begin;
    return while (i < end) : (i += 1) {
        if (i == number) {
            break true;
        }
    } else false;
}
Shell
$ zig test while.zig
1/1 test.while else... OK
All 1 tests passed.

Labeled while §

When a while loop is labeled, it can be referenced from a break or continue from within a nested loop:

test_nested_break.zig
test "nested break" {
    outer: while (true) {
        while (true) {
            break :outer;
        }
    }
}

test "nested continue" {
    var i: usize = 0;
    outer: while (i < 10) : (i += 1) {
        while (true) {
            continue :outer;
        }
    }
}
Shell
$ zig test test_nested_break.zig
1/2 test.nested break... OK
2/2 test.nested continue... OK
All 2 tests passed.

while with Optionals §

Just like if expressions, while loops can take an optional as the condition and capture the payload. When null is encountered the loop exits.

When the |x| syntax is present on a while expression, the while condition must have an Optional Type.

The else branch is allowed on optional iteration. In this case, it will be executed on the first null value encountered.

while.zig
const expect = @import("std").testing.expect;

test "while null capture" {
    var sum1: u32 = 0;
    numbers_left = 3;
    while (eventuallyNullSequence()) |value| {
        sum1 += value;
    }
    try expect(sum1 == 3);

    var sum2: u32 = 0;
    numbers_left = 3;
    while (eventuallyNullSequence()) |value| {
        sum2 += value;
    } else {
        try expect(sum2 == 3);
    }
}

var numbers_left: u32 = undefined;
fn eventuallyNullSequence() ?u32 {
    return if (numbers_left == 0) null else blk: {
        numbers_left -= 1;
        break :blk numbers_left;
    };
}
Shell
$ zig test while.zig
1/1 test.while null capture... OK
All 1 tests passed.

while with Error Unions §

Just like if expressions, while loops can take an error union as the condition and capture the payload or the error code. When the condition results in an error code the else branch is evaluated and the loop is finished.

When the else |x| syntax is present on a while expression, the while condition must have an Error Union Type.

while.zig
const expect = @import("std").testing.expect;

test "while error union capture" {
    var sum1: u32 = 0;
    numbers_left = 3;
    while (eventuallyErrorSequence()) |value| {
        sum1 += value;
    } else |err| {
        try expect(err == error.ReachedZero);
    }
}

var numbers_left: u32 = undefined;

fn eventuallyErrorSequence() anyerror!u32 {
    return if (numbers_left == 0) error.ReachedZero else blk: {
        numbers_left -= 1;
        break :blk numbers_left;
    };
}
Shell
$ zig test while.zig
1/1 test.while error union capture... OK
All 1 tests passed.

inline while §

While loops can be inlined. This causes the loop to be unrolled, which allows the code to do some things which only work at compile time, such as use types as first class values.

test_inline_while.zig
const expect = @import("std").testing.expect;

test "inline while loop" {
    comptime var i = 0;
    var sum: usize = 0;
    inline while (i < 3) : (i += 1) {
        const T = switch (i) {
            0 => f32,
            1 => i8,
            2 => bool,
            else => unreachable,
        };
        sum += typeNameLength(T);
    }
    try expect(sum == 9);
}

fn typeNameLength(comptime T: type) usize {
    return @typeName(T).len;
}
Shell
$ zig test test_inline_while.zig
1/1 test.inline while loop... OK
All 1 tests passed.

It is recommended to use inline loops only for one of these reasons:

  • You need the loop to execute at comptime for the semantics to work.
  • You have a benchmark to prove that forcibly unrolling the loop in this way is measurably faster.

See also:

for §

for.zig
const expect = @import("std").testing.expect;

test "for basics" {
    const items = [_]i32 { 4, 5, 3, 4, 0 };
    var sum: i32 = 0;

    // For loops iterate over slices and arrays.
    for (items) |value| {
        // Break and continue are supported.
        if (value == 0) {
            continue;
        }
        sum += value;
    }
    try expect(sum == 16);

    // To iterate over a portion of a slice, reslice.
    for (items[0..1]) |value| {
        sum += value;
    }
    try expect(sum == 20);

    // To access the index of iteration, specify a second capture value.
    // This is zero-indexed.
    var sum2: i32 = 0;
    for (items) |_, i| {
        try expect(@TypeOf(i) == usize);
        sum2 += @intCast(i32, i);
    }
    try expect(sum2 == 10);
}

test "for reference" {
    var items = [_]i32 { 3, 4, 2 };

    // Iterate over the slice by reference by
    // specifying that the capture value is a pointer.
    for (items) |*value| {
        value.* += 1;
    }

    try expect(items[0] == 4);
    try expect(items[1] == 5);
    try expect(items[2] == 3);
}

test "for else" {
    // For allows an else attached to it, the same as a while loop.
    var items = [_]?i32 { 3, 4, null, 5 };

    // For loops can also be used as expressions.
    // Similar to while loops, when you break from a for loop, the else branch is not evaluated.
    var sum: i32 = 0;
    const result = for (items) |value| {
        if (value != null) {
            sum += value.?;
        }
    } else blk: {
        try expect(sum == 12);
        break :blk sum;
    };
    try expect(result == 12);
}
Shell
$ zig test for.zig
1/3 test.for basics... OK
2/3 test.for reference... OK
3/3 test.for else... OK
All 3 tests passed.

Labeled for §

When a for loop is labeled, it can be referenced from a break or continue from within a nested loop:

test_nested_break.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

test "nested break" {
    var count: usize = 0;
    outer: for ([_]i32{ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }) |_| {
        for ([_]i32{ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }) |_| {
            count += 1;
            break :outer;
        }
    }
    try expect(count == 1);
}

test "nested continue" {
    var count: usize = 0;
    outer: for ([_]i32{ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 }) |_| {
        for ([_]i32{ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }) |_| {
            count += 1;
            continue :outer;
        }
    }

    try expect(count == 8);
}
Shell
$ zig test test_nested_break.zig
1/2 test.nested break... OK
2/2 test.nested continue... OK
All 2 tests passed.

inline for §

For loops can be inlined. This causes the loop to be unrolled, which allows the code to do some things which only work at compile time, such as use types as first class values. The capture value and iterator value of inlined for loops are compile-time known.

test_inline_loop.zig
const expect = @import("std").testing.expect;

test "inline for loop" {
    const nums = [_]i32{2, 4, 6};
    var sum: usize = 0;
    inline for (nums) |i| {
        const T = switch (i) {
            2 => f32,
            4 => i8,
            6 => bool,
            else => unreachable,
        };
        sum += typeNameLength(T);
    }
    try expect(sum == 9);
}

fn typeNameLength(comptime T: type) usize {
    return @typeName(T).len;
}
Shell
$ zig test test_inline_loop.zig
1/1 test.inline for loop... OK
All 1 tests passed.

It is recommended to use inline loops only for one of these reasons:

  • You need the loop to execute at comptime for the semantics to work.
  • You have a benchmark to prove that forcibly unrolling the loop in this way is measurably faster.

See also:

if §

if.zig
// If expressions have three uses, corresponding to the three types:
// * bool
// * ?T
// * anyerror!T

const expect = @import("std").testing.expect;

test "if expression" {
    // If expressions are used instead of a ternary expression.
    const a: u32 = 5;
    const b: u32 = 4;
    const result = if (a != b) 47 else 3089;
    try expect(result == 47);
}

test "if boolean" {
    // If expressions test boolean conditions.
    const a: u32 = 5;
    const b: u32 = 4;
    if (a != b) {
        try expect(true);
    } else if (a == 9) {
        unreachable;
    } else {
        unreachable;
    }
}

test "if optional" {
    // If expressions test for null.

    const a: ?u32 = 0;
    if (a) |value| {
        try expect(value == 0);
    } else {
        unreachable;
    }

    const b: ?u32 = null;
    if (b) |_| {
        unreachable;
    } else {
        try expect(true);
    }

    // The else is not required.
    if (a) |value| {
        try expect(value == 0);
    }

    // To test against null only, use the binary equality operator.
    if (b == null) {
        try expect(true);
    }

    // Access the value by reference using a pointer capture.
    var c: ?u32 = 3;
    if (c) |*value| {
        value.* = 2;
    }

    if (c) |value| {
        try expect(value == 2);
    } else {
        unreachable;
    }
}

test "if error union" {
    // If expressions test for errors.
    // Note the |err| capture on the else.

    const a: anyerror!u32 = 0;
    if (a) |value| {
        try expect(value == 0);
    } else |err| {
        _ = err;
        unreachable;
    }

    const b: anyerror!u32 = error.BadValue;
    if (b) |value| {
        _ = value;
        unreachable;
    } else |err| {
        try expect(err == error.BadValue);
    }

    // The else and |err| capture is strictly required.
    if (a) |value| {
        try expect(value == 0);
    } else |_| {}

    // To check only the error value, use an empty block expression.
    if (b) |_| {} else |err| {
        try expect(err == error.BadValue);
    }

    // Access the value by reference using a pointer capture.
    var c: anyerror!u32 = 3;
    if (c) |*value| {
        value.* = 9;
    } else |_| {
        unreachable;
    }

    if (c) |value| {
        try expect(value == 9);
    } else |_| {
        unreachable;
    }
}

test "if error union with optional" {
    // If expressions test for errors before unwrapping optionals.
    // The |optional_value| capture's type is ?u32.

    const a: anyerror!?u32 = 0;
    if (a) |optional_value| {
        try expect(optional_value.? == 0);
    } else |err| {
        _ = err;
        unreachable;
    }

    const b: anyerror!?u32 = null;
    if (b) |optional_value| {
        try expect(optional_value == null);
    } else |_| {
        unreachable;
    }

    const c: anyerror!?u32 = error.BadValue;
    if (c) |optional_value| {
        _ = optional_value;
        unreachable;
    } else |err| {
        try expect(err == error.BadValue);
    }

    // Access the value by reference by using a pointer capture each time.
    var d: anyerror!?u32 = 3;
    if (d) |*optional_value| {
        if (optional_value.*) |*value| {
            value.* = 9;
        }
    } else |_| {
        unreachable;
    }

    if (d) |optional_value| {
        try expect(optional_value.? == 9);
    } else |_| {
        unreachable;
    }
}
Shell
$ zig test if.zig
1/5 test.if expression... OK
2/5 test.if boolean... OK
3/5 test.if optional... OK
4/5 test.if error union... OK
5/5 test.if error union with optional... OK
All 5 tests passed.

See also:

defer §

defer.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;
const print = std.debug.print;

// defer will execute an expression at the end of the current scope.
fn deferExample() !usize {
    var a: usize = 1;

    {
        defer a = 2;
        a = 1;
    }
    try expect(a == 2);

    a = 5;
    return a;
}

test "defer basics" {
    try expect((try deferExample()) == 5);
}

// If multiple defer statements are specified, they will be executed in
// the reverse order they were run.
fn deferUnwindExample() void {
    print("\n", .{});

    defer {
        print("1 ", .{});
    }
    defer {
        print("2 ", .{});
    }
    if (false) {
        // defers are not run if they are never executed.
        defer {
            print("3 ", .{});
        }
    }
}

test "defer unwinding" {
    deferUnwindExample();
}

// The errdefer keyword is similar to defer, but will only execute if the
// scope returns with an error.
//
// This is especially useful in allowing a function to clean up properly
// on error, and replaces goto error handling tactics as seen in c.
fn deferErrorExample(is_error: bool) !void {
    print("\nstart of function\n", .{});

    // This will always be executed on exit
    defer {
        print("end of function\n", .{});
    }

    errdefer {
        print("encountered an error!\n", .{});
    }

    // inside a defer method the return statement
    // is not allowed.
    // The following lines produce the following
    // error if uncomment
    // ```
    // defer.zig:73:9: error: cannot return from defer expression
    // return error.DeferError;
    // ```
    //
    //defer {
    //    return error.DeferError;
    //}

    if (is_error) {
        return error.DeferError;
    }
}

// The errdefer keyword support also an alternative syntax to capture the
// error generated in case of one error.
//
// This is useful when during the clean up after an error additional
// message want to be printed.
fn deferErrorCaptureExample() !void {
    errdefer |err| {
        std.debug.print("the error is {s}\n", .{@errorName(err)});
    }

    return error.DeferError;
}

test "errdefer unwinding" {
    deferErrorExample(false) catch {};
    deferErrorExample(true) catch {};
    deferErrorCaptureExample() catch {};
}
Shell
$ zig test defer.zig
1/3 test.defer basics... OK
2/3 test.defer unwinding...
2 1 OK
3/3 test.errdefer unwinding...
start of function
end of function

start of function
encountered an error!
end of function
the error is DeferError
OK
All 3 tests passed.

See also:

unreachable §

In Debug and ReleaseSafe mode unreachable emits a call to panic with the message reached unreachable code.

In ReleaseFast and ReleaseSmall mode, the optimizer uses the assumption that unreachable code will never be hit to perform optimizations.

Basics §

test_unreachable.zig
// unreachable is used to assert that control flow will never reach a
// particular location:
test "basic math" {
    const x = 1;
    const y = 2;
    if (x + y != 3) {
        unreachable;
    }
}
Shell
$ zig test test_unreachable.zig
1/1 test.basic math... OK
All 1 tests passed.

In fact, this is how std.debug.assert is implemented:

test.zig
// This is how std.debug.assert is implemented
fn assert(ok: bool) void {
    if (!ok) unreachable; // assertion failure
}

// This test will fail because we hit unreachable.
test "this will fail" {
    assert(false);
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig
1/1 test.this will fail... thread 3574948 panic: reached unreachable code
docgen_tmp/test.zig:3:14: 0x21158c in assert (test)
    if (!ok) unreachable; // assertion failure
             ^
docgen_tmp/test.zig:8:11: 0x21154a in test.this will fail (test)
    assert(false);
          ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/test_runner.zig:63:28: 0x212d23 in main (test)
        } else test_fn.func();
                           ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:604:22: 0x211eac in posixCallMainAndExit (test)
            root.main();
                     ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:376:5: 0x2119b1 in _start (test)
    @call(.{ .modifier = .never_inline }, posixCallMainAndExit, .{});
    ^
error: the following test command crashed:
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-local-cache/o/886dbde2c2a21074c6c6d3ff9b83336b/test

At Compile-Time §

test.zig
const assert = @import("std").debug.assert;

test "type of unreachable" {
    comptime {
        // The type of unreachable is noreturn.

        // However this assertion will still fail to compile because
        // unreachable expressions are compile errors.

        assert(@TypeOf(unreachable) == noreturn);
    }
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig
docgen_tmp/test.zig:10:16: error: unreachable code
        assert(@TypeOf(unreachable) == noreturn);
               ^~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
docgen_tmp/test.zig:10:24: note: control flow is diverted here
        assert(@TypeOf(unreachable) == noreturn);
                       ^~~~~~~~~~~

See also:

noreturn §

noreturn is the type of:

  • break
  • continue
  • return
  • unreachable
  • while (true) {}

When resolving types together, such as if clauses or switch prongs, the noreturn type is compatible with every other type. Consider:

test_noreturn.zig
fn foo(condition: bool, b: u32) void {
    const a = if (condition) b else return;
    _ = a;
    @panic("do something with a");
}
test "noreturn" {
    foo(false, 1);
}
Shell
$ zig test test_noreturn.zig
1/1 test.noreturn... OK
All 1 tests passed.

Another use case for noreturn is the exit function:

noreturn_from_exit.zig
const std = @import("std");
const builtin = @import("builtin");
const native_arch = builtin.cpu.arch;
const expect = std.testing.expect;

const WINAPI: std.builtin.CallingConvention = if (native_arch == .i386) .Stdcall else .C;
extern "kernel32" fn ExitProcess(exit_code: c_uint) callconv(WINAPI) noreturn;

test "foo" {
    const value = bar() catch ExitProcess(1);
    try expect(value == 1234);
}

fn bar() anyerror!u32 {
    return 1234;
}
Shell
$ zig test noreturn_from_exit.zig -target x86_64-windows --test-no-exec

Functions §

functions.zig
const std = @import("std");
const builtin = @import("builtin");
const native_arch = builtin.cpu.arch;
const expect = std.testing.expect;

// Functions are declared like this
fn add(a: i8, b: i8) i8 {
    if (a == 0) {
        return b;
    }

    return a + b;
}

// The export specifier makes a function externally visible in the generated
// object file, and makes it use the C ABI.
export fn sub(a: i8, b: i8) i8 { return a - b; }

// The extern specifier is used to declare a function that will be resolved
// at link time, when linking statically, or at runtime, when linking
// dynamically.
// The callconv specifier changes the calling convention of the function.
const WINAPI: std.builtin.CallingConvention = if (native_arch == .i386) .Stdcall else .C;
extern "kernel32" fn ExitProcess(exit_code: u32) callconv(WINAPI) noreturn;
extern "c" fn atan2(a: f64, b: f64) f64;

// The @setCold builtin tells the optimizer that a function is rarely called.
fn abort() noreturn {
    @setCold(true);
    while (true) {}
}

// The naked calling convention makes a function not have any function prologue or epilogue.
// This can be useful when integrating with assembly.
fn _start() callconv(.Naked) noreturn {
    abort();
}

// The inline calling convention forces a function to be inlined at all call sites.
// If the function cannot be inlined, it is a compile-time error.
fn shiftLeftOne(a: u32) callconv(.Inline) u32 {
    return a << 1;
}

// The pub specifier allows the function to be visible when importing.
// Another file can use @import and call sub2
pub fn sub2(a: i8, b: i8) i8 { return a - b; }

// Function pointers are prefixed with `*const `.
const call2_op = *const fn (a: i8, b: i8) i8;
fn do_op(fn_call: call2_op, op1: i8, op2: i8) i8 {
    return fn_call(op1, op2);
}

test "function" {
    try expect(do_op(add, 5, 6) == 11);
    try expect(do_op(sub2, 5, 6) == -1);
}
Shell
$ zig test functions.zig
1/1 test.function... OK
All 1 tests passed.

There is a difference between a function body and a function pointer. Function bodies are comptime-only types while function Pointers may be runtime-known.

Pass-by-value Parameters §

Primitive types such as Integers and Floats passed as parameters are copied, and then the copy is available in the function body. This is called "passing by value". Copying a primitive type is essentially free and typically involves nothing more than setting a register.

Structs, unions, and arrays can sometimes be more efficiently passed as a reference, since a copy could be arbitrarily expensive depending on the size. When these types are passed as parameters, Zig may choose to copy and pass by value, or pass by reference, whichever way Zig decides will be faster. This is made possible, in part, by the fact that parameters are immutable.

pass_by_reference_or_value.zig
const Point = struct {
    x: i32,
    y: i32,
};

fn foo(point: Point) i32 {
    // Here, `point` could be a reference, or a copy. The function body
    // can ignore the difference and treat it as a value. Be very careful
    // taking the address of the parameter - it should be treated as if
    // the address will become invalid when the function returns.
    return point.x + point.y;
}

const expect = @import("std").testing.expect;

test "pass struct to function" {
    try expect(foo(Point{ .x = 1, .y = 2 }) == 3);
}
Shell
$ zig test pass_by_reference_or_value.zig
1/1 test.pass struct to function... OK
All 1 tests passed.

For extern functions, Zig follows the C ABI for passing structs and unions by value.

Function Parameter Type Inference §

Function parameters can be declared with anytype in place of the type. In this case the parameter types will be inferred when the function is called. Use @TypeOf and @typeInfo to get information about the inferred type.

test_fn_type_inference.zig
const expect = @import("std").testing.expect;

fn addFortyTwo(x: anytype) @TypeOf(x) {
    return x + 42;
}

test "fn type inference" {
    try expect(addFortyTwo(1) == 43);
    try expect(@TypeOf(addFortyTwo(1)) == comptime_int);
    var y: i64 = 2;
    try expect(addFortyTwo(y) == 44);
    try expect(@TypeOf(addFortyTwo(y)) == i64);
}
Shell
$ zig test test_fn_type_inference.zig
1/1 test.fn type inference... OK
All 1 tests passed.

Function Reflection §

test_fn_reflection.zig
const expect = @import("std").testing.expect;

test "fn reflection" {
    try expect(@typeInfo(@TypeOf(expect)).Fn.args[0].arg_type.? == bool);
    try expect(@typeInfo(@TypeOf(expect)).Fn.is_var_args == false);
}
Shell
$ zig test test_fn_reflection.zig
1/1 test.fn reflection... OK
All 1 tests passed.

Errors §

Error Set Type §

An error set is like an enum. However, each error name across the entire compilation gets assigned an unsigned integer greater than 0. You are allowed to declare the same error name more than once, and if you do, it gets assigned the same integer value.

The number of unique error values across the entire compilation should determine the size of the error set type. However right now it is hard coded to be a u16. See #768.

You can coerce an error from a subset to a superset:

coercing_subset_to_superset.zig
const std = @import("std");

const FileOpenError = error {
    AccessDenied,
    OutOfMemory,
    FileNotFound,
};

const AllocationError = error {
    OutOfMemory,
};

test "coerce subset to superset" {
    const err = foo(AllocationError.OutOfMemory);
    try std.testing.expect(err == FileOpenError.OutOfMemory);
}

fn foo(err: AllocationError) FileOpenError {
    return err;
}
Shell
$ zig test coercing_subset_to_superset.zig
1/1 test.coerce subset to superset... OK
All 1 tests passed.

But you cannot coerce an error from a superset to a subset:

test.zig
const FileOpenError = error {
    AccessDenied,
    OutOfMemory,
    FileNotFound,
};

const AllocationError = error {
    OutOfMemory,
};

test "coerce superset to subset" {
    foo(FileOpenError.OutOfMemory) catch {};
}

fn foo(err: FileOpenError) AllocationError {
    return err;
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig
docgen_tmp/test.zig:16:12: error: expected type 'error{OutOfMemory}', found 'error{AccessDenied,FileNotFound,OutOfMemory}'
    return err;
           ^~~
docgen_tmp/test.zig:16:12: note: 'error.AccessDenied' not a member of destination error set
docgen_tmp/test.zig:16:12: note: 'error.FileNotFound' not a member of destination error set
docgen_tmp/test.zig:15:28: note: function return type declared here
fn foo(err: FileOpenError) AllocationError {
                           ^~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
referenced by:
    test.coerce superset to subset: docgen_tmp/test.zig:12:5
    remaining reference traces hidden; use '-freference-trace' to see all reference traces


There is a shortcut for declaring an error set with only 1 value, and then getting that value:

test.zig
const err = error.FileNotFound;

This is equivalent to:

test.zig
const err = (error {FileNotFound}).FileNotFound;

This becomes useful when using Inferred Error Sets.

The Global Error Set §

anyerror refers to the global error set. This is the error set that contains all errors in the entire compilation unit. It is a superset of all other error sets and a subset of none of them.

You can coerce any error set to the global one, and you can explicitly cast an error of the global error set to a non-global one. This inserts a language-level assert to make sure the error value is in fact in the destination error set.

The global error set should generally be avoided because it prevents the compiler from knowing what errors are possible at compile-time. Knowing the error set at compile-time is better for generated documentation and helpful error messages, such as forgetting a possible error value in a switch.

Error Union Type §

An error set type and normal type can be combined with the ! binary operator to form an error union type. You are likely to use an error union type more often than an error set type by itself.

Here is a function to parse a string into a 64-bit integer:

error_union_parsing_u64.zig
const std = @import("std");
const maxInt = std.math.maxInt;

pub fn parseU64(buf: []const u8, radix: u8) !u64 {
    var x: u64 = 0;

    for (buf) |c| {
        const digit = charToDigit(c);

        if (digit >= radix) {
            return error.InvalidChar;
        }

        // x *= radix
        if (@mulWithOverflow(u64, x, radix, &x)) {
            return error.Overflow;
        }

        // x += digit
        if (@addWithOverflow(u64, x, digit, &x)) {
            return error.Overflow;
        }
    }

    return x;
}

fn charToDigit(c: u8) u8 {
    return switch (c) {
        '0' ... '9' => c - '0',
        'A' ... 'Z' => c - 'A' + 10,
        'a' ... 'z' => c - 'a' + 10,
        else => maxInt(u8),
    };
}

test "parse u64" {
    const result = try parseU64("1234", 10);
    try std.testing.expect(result == 1234);
}
Shell
$ zig test error_union_parsing_u64.zig
1/1 test.parse u64... OK
All 1 tests passed.

Notice the return type is !u64. This means that the function either returns an unsigned 64 bit integer, or an error. We left off the error set to the left of the !, so the error set is inferred.

Within the function definition, you can see some return statements that return an error, and at the bottom a return statement that returns a u64. Both types coerce to anyerror!u64.

What it looks like to use this function varies depending on what you're trying to do. One of the following:

  • You want to provide a default value if it returned an error.
  • If it returned an error then you want to return the same error.
  • You know with complete certainty it will not return an error, so want to unconditionally unwrap it.
  • You want to take a different action for each possible error.

catch §

If you want to provide a default value, you can use the catch binary operator:

test.zig
const parseU64 = @import("error_union_parsing_u64.zig").parseU64;

fn doAThing(str: []u8) void {
    const number = parseU64(str, 10) catch 13;
    _ = number; // ...
}

In this code, number will be equal to the successfully parsed string, or a default value of 13. The type of the right hand side of the binary catch operator must match the unwrapped error union type, or be of type noreturn.

try §

Let's say you wanted to return the error if you got one, otherwise continue with the function logic:

test.zig
const parseU64 = @import("error_union_parsing_u64.zig").parseU64;

fn doAThing(str: []u8) !void {
    const number = parseU64(str, 10) catch |err| return err;
    _ = number; // ...
}

There is a shortcut for this. The try expression:

test.zig
const parseU64 = @import("error_union_parsing_u64.zig").parseU64;

fn doAThing(str: []u8) !void {
    const number = try parseU64(str, 10);
    _ = number; // ...
}

try evaluates an error union expression. If it is an error, it returns from the current function with the same error. Otherwise, the expression results in the unwrapped value.

Maybe you know with complete certainty that an expression will never be an error. In this case you can do this:

const number = parseU64("1234", 10) catch unreachable;

Here we know for sure that "1234" will parse successfully. So we put the unreachable value on the right hand side. unreachable generates a panic in Debug and ReleaseSafe modes and undefined behavior in ReleaseFast mode. So, while we're debugging the application, if there was a surprise error here, the application would crash appropriately.

Finally, you may want to take a different action for every situation. For that, we combine the if and switch expression:

handle_all_error_scenarios.zig
fn doAThing(str: []u8) void {
    if (parseU64(str, 10)) |number| {
        doSomethingWithNumber(number);
    } else |err| switch (err) {
        error.Overflow => {
            // handle overflow...
        },
        // we promise that InvalidChar won't happen (or crash in debug mode if it does)
        error.InvalidChar => unreachable,
    }
}

errdefer §

The other component to error handling is defer statements. In addition to an unconditional defer, Zig has errdefer, which evaluates the deferred expression on block exit path if and only if the function returned with an error from the block.

Example:

errdefer_example.zig
fn createFoo(param: i32) !Foo {
    const foo = try tryToAllocateFoo();
    // now we have allocated foo. we need to free it if the function fails.
    // but we want to return it if the function succeeds.
    errdefer deallocateFoo(foo);

    const tmp_buf = allocateTmpBuffer() orelse return error.OutOfMemory;
    // tmp_buf is truly a temporary resource, and we for sure want to clean it up
    // before this block leaves scope
    defer deallocateTmpBuffer(tmp_buf);

    if (param > 1337) return error.InvalidParam;

    // here the errdefer will not run since we're returning success from the function.
    // but the defer will run!
    return foo;
}

The neat thing about this is that you get robust error handling without the verbosity and cognitive overhead of trying to make sure every exit path is covered. The deallocation code is always directly following the allocation code.

Common errdefer Slip-Ups §

It should be noted that errdefer statements only last until the end of the block they are written in, and therefore are not run if an error is returned outside of that block:

test.zig
const std = @import("std");
const Allocator = std.mem.Allocator;

const Foo = struct {
    data: u32,
};

fn tryToAllocateFoo(allocator: Allocator) !*Foo {
    return allocator.create(Foo);
}

fn deallocateFoo(allocator: Allocator, foo: *Foo) void {
    allocator.destroy(foo);
}

fn getFooData() !u32 {
    return 666;
}

fn createFoo(allocator: Allocator, param: i32) !*Foo {
    const foo = getFoo: {
        var foo = try tryToAllocateFoo(allocator);
        errdefer deallocateFoo(allocator, foo); // Only lasts until the end of getFoo

        // Calls deallocateFoo on error
        foo.data = try getFooData();

        break :getFoo foo;
    };

    // Outside of the scope of the errdefer, so
    // deallocateFoo will not be called here
    if (param > 1337) return error.InvalidParam;

    return foo;
}

test "createFoo" {
    try std.testing.expectError(error.InvalidParam, createFoo(std.testing.allocator, 2468));
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig
1/1 test.createFoo... OK
[gpa] (err): memory address 0x7f0c30c1a000 leaked:
docgen_tmp/test.zig:9:28: 0x21374f in tryToAllocateFoo (test)
    return allocator.create(Foo);
                           ^
docgen_tmp/test.zig:22:39: 0x2139a5 in createFoo (test)
        var foo = try tryToAllocateFoo(allocator);
                                      ^
docgen_tmp/test.zig:39:74: 0x213d2d in test.createFoo (test)
    try std.testing.expectError(error.InvalidParam, createFoo(std.testing.allocator, 2468));
                                                                         ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/test_runner.zig:63:28: 0x21b343 in main (test)
        } else test_fn.func();
                           ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:604:22: 0x21468c in posixCallMainAndExit (test)
            root.main();
                     ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:376:5: 0x214191 in _start (test)
    @call(.{ .modifier = .never_inline }, posixCallMainAndExit, .{});
    ^


All 1 tests passed.
1 errors were logged.
1 tests leaked memory.
error: the following test command failed with exit code 1:
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-local-cache/o/886dbde2c2a21074c6c6d3ff9b83336b/test

To ensure that deallocateFoo is properly called when returning an error, you must add an errdefer outside of the block:

test_errdefer_block.zig
const std = @import("std");
const Allocator = std.mem.Allocator;

const Foo = struct {
    data: u32,
};

fn tryToAllocateFoo(allocator: Allocator) !*Foo {
    return allocator.create(Foo);
}

fn deallocateFoo(allocator: Allocator, foo: *Foo) void {
    allocator.destroy(foo);
}

fn getFooData() !u32 {
    return 666;
}

fn createFoo(allocator: Allocator, param: i32) !*Foo {
    const foo = getFoo: {
        var foo = try tryToAllocateFoo(allocator);
        errdefer deallocateFoo(allocator, foo);

        foo.data = try getFooData();

        break :getFoo foo;
    };
    // This lasts for the rest of the function
    errdefer deallocateFoo(allocator, foo);

    // Error is now properly handled by errdefer
    if (param > 1337) return error.InvalidParam;

    return foo;
}

test "createFoo" {
    try std.testing.expectError(error.InvalidParam, createFoo(std.testing.allocator, 2468));
}
Shell
$ zig test test_errdefer_block.zig
1/1 test.createFoo... OK
All 1 tests passed.

The fact that errdefers only last for the block they are declared in is especially important when using loops:

test.zig
const std = @import("std");
const Allocator = std.mem.Allocator;

const Foo = struct {
    data: *u32
};

fn getData() !u32 {
    return 666;
}

fn genFoos(allocator: Allocator, num: usize) ![]Foo {
    var foos = try allocator.alloc(Foo, num);
    errdefer allocator.free(foos);

    for(foos) |*foo, i| {
        foo.data = try allocator.create(u32);
        // This errdefer does not last between iterations
        errdefer allocator.destroy(foo.data);

        // The data for the first 3 foos will be leaked
        if(i >= 3) return error.TooManyFoos;

        foo.data.* = try getData();
    }

    return foos;
}

test "genFoos" {
    try std.testing.expectError(error.TooManyFoos, genFoos(std.testing.allocator, 5));
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig
1/1 test.genFoos... OK
[gpa] (err): memory address 0x7f5b37d49000 leaked:
docgen_tmp/test.zig:17:40: 0x213c76 in genFoos (test)
        foo.data = try allocator.create(u32);
                                       ^
docgen_tmp/test.zig:31:71: 0x2146cd in test.genFoos (test)
    try std.testing.expectError(error.TooManyFoos, genFoos(std.testing.allocator, 5));
                                                                      ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/test_runner.zig:63:28: 0x21c2c3 in main (test)
        } else test_fn.func();
                           ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:604:22: 0x214f7c in posixCallMainAndExit (test)
            root.main();
                     ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:376:5: 0x214a81 in _start (test)
    @call(.{ .modifier = .never_inline }, posixCallMainAndExit, .{});
    ^


[gpa] (err): memory address 0x7f5b37d49004 leaked:
docgen_tmp/test.zig:17:40: 0x213c76 in genFoos (test)
        foo.data = try allocator.create(u32);
                                       ^
docgen_tmp/test.zig:31:71: 0x2146cd in test.genFoos (test)
    try std.testing.expectError(error.TooManyFoos, genFoos(std.testing.allocator, 5));
                                                                      ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/test_runner.zig:63:28: 0x21c2c3 in main (test)
        } else test_fn.func();
                           ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:604:22: 0x214f7c in posixCallMainAndExit (test)
            root.main();
                     ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:376:5: 0x214a81 in _start (test)
    @call(.{ .modifier = .never_inline }, posixCallMainAndExit, .{});
    ^


[gpa] (err): memory address 0x7f5b37d49008 leaked:
docgen_tmp/test.zig:17:40: 0x213c76 in genFoos (test)
        foo.data = try allocator.create(u32);
                                       ^
docgen_tmp/test.zig:31:71: 0x2146cd in test.genFoos (test)
    try std.testing.expectError(error.TooManyFoos, genFoos(std.testing.allocator, 5));
                                                                      ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/test_runner.zig:63:28: 0x21c2c3 in main (test)
        } else test_fn.func();
                           ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:604:22: 0x214f7c in posixCallMainAndExit (test)
            root.main();
                     ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:376:5: 0x214a81 in _start (test)
    @call(.{ .modifier = .never_inline }, posixCallMainAndExit, .{});
    ^


All 1 tests passed.
3 errors were logged.
1 tests leaked memory.
error: the following test command failed with exit code 1:
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-local-cache/o/886dbde2c2a21074c6c6d3ff9b83336b/test

Special care must be taken with code that allocates in a loop to make sure that no memory is leaked when returning an error:

test_errdefer_loop.zig
const std = @import("std");
const Allocator = std.mem.Allocator;

const Foo = struct {
    data: *u32
};

fn getData() !u32 {
    return 666;
}

fn genFoos(allocator: Allocator, num: usize) ![]Foo {
    var foos = try allocator.alloc(Foo, num);
    errdefer allocator.free(foos);

    // Used to track how many foos have been initialized
    // (including their data being allocated)
    var num_allocated: usize = 0;
    errdefer for(foos[0..num_allocated]) |foo| {
        allocator.destroy(foo.data);
    };
    for(foos) |*foo, i| {
        foo.data = try allocator.create(u32);
        num_allocated += 1;

        if(i >= 3) return error.TooManyFoos;

        foo.data.* = try getData();
    }

    return foos;
}

test "genFoos" {
    try std.testing.expectError(error.TooManyFoos, genFoos(std.testing.allocator, 5));
}
Shell
$ zig test test_errdefer_loop.zig
1/1 test.genFoos... OK
All 1 tests passed.

A couple of other tidbits about error handling:

  • These primitives give enough expressiveness that it's completely practical to have failing to check for an error be a compile error. If you really want to ignore the error, you can add catch unreachable and get the added benefit of crashing in Debug and ReleaseSafe modes if your assumption was wrong.
  • Since Zig understands error types, it can pre-weight branches in favor of errors not occurring. Just a small optimization benefit that is not available in other languages.

See also:

An error union is created with the ! binary operator. You can use compile-time reflection to access the child type of an error union:

test_error_union.zig
const expect = @import("std").testing.expect;

test "error union" {
    var foo: anyerror!i32 = undefined;

    // Coerce from child type of an error union:
    foo = 1234;

    // Coerce from an error set:
    foo = error.SomeError;

    // Use compile-time reflection to access the payload type of an error union:
    comptime try expect(@typeInfo(@TypeOf(foo)).ErrorUnion.payload == i32);

    // Use compile-time reflection to access the error set type of an error union:
    comptime try expect(@typeInfo(@TypeOf(foo)).ErrorUnion.error_set == anyerror);
}
Shell
$ zig test test_error_union.zig
1/1 test.error union... OK
All 1 tests passed.

Merging Error Sets §

Use the || operator to merge two error sets together. The resulting error set contains the errors of both error sets. Doc comments from the left-hand side override doc comments from the right-hand side. In this example, the doc comments for C.PathNotFound is A doc comment.

This is especially useful for functions which return different error sets depending on comptime branches. For example, the Zig standard library uses LinuxFileOpenError || WindowsFileOpenError for the error set of opening files.

test_merging_error_sets.zig
const A = error{
    NotDir,

    /// A doc comment
    PathNotFound,
};
const B = error{
    OutOfMemory,

    /// B doc comment
    PathNotFound,
};

const C = A || B;

fn foo() C!void {
    return error.NotDir;
}

test "merge error sets" {
    if (foo()) {
        @panic("unexpected");
    } else |err| switch (err) {
        error.OutOfMemory => @panic("unexpected"),
        error.PathNotFound => @panic("unexpected"),
        error.NotDir => {},
    }
}
Shell
$ zig test test_merging_error_sets.zig
1/1 test.merge error sets... OK
All 1 tests passed.

Inferred Error Sets §

Because many functions in Zig return a possible error, Zig supports inferring the error set. To infer the error set for a function, prepend the ! operator to the function’s return type, like !T:

inferred_error_sets.zig
// With an inferred error set
pub fn add_inferred(comptime T: type, a: T, b: T) !T {
    var answer: T = undefined;
    return if (@addWithOverflow(T, a, b, &answer)) error.Overflow else answer;
}

// With an explicit error set
pub fn add_explicit(comptime T: type, a: T, b: T) Error!T {
    var answer: T = undefined;
    return if (@addWithOverflow(T, a, b, &answer)) error.Overflow else answer;
}

const Error = error {
    Overflow,
};

const std = @import("std");

test "inferred error set" {
    if (add_inferred(u8, 255, 1)) |_| unreachable else |err| switch (err) {
        error.Overflow => {}, // ok
    }
}
Shell
$ zig test inferred_error_sets.zig
1/1 test.inferred error set... OK
All 1 tests passed.

When a function has an inferred error set, that function becomes generic and thus it becomes trickier to do certain things with it, such as obtain a function pointer, or have an error set that is consistent across different build targets. Additionally, inferred error sets are incompatible with recursion.

In these situations, it is recommended to use an explicit error set. You can generally start with an empty error set and let compile errors guide you toward completing the set.

These limitations may be overcome in a future version of Zig.

Error Return Traces §

Error Return Traces show all the points in the code that an error was returned to the calling function. This makes it practical to use try everywhere and then still be able to know what happened if an error ends up bubbling all the way out of your application.

test.zig
pub fn main() !void {
    try foo(12);
}

fn foo(x: i32) !void {
    if (x >= 5) {
        try bar();
    } else {
        try bang2();
    }
}

fn bar() !void {
    if (baz()) {
        try quux();
    } else |err| switch (err) {
        error.FileNotFound => try hello(),
    }
}

fn baz() !void {
    try bang1();
}

fn quux() !void {
    try bang2();
}

fn hello() !void {
    try bang2();
}

fn bang1() !void {
    return error.FileNotFound;
}

fn bang2() !void {
    return error.PermissionDenied;
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe test.zig

$ ./test
error: PermissionDenied
docgen_tmp/test.zig:34:5: 0x20fd98 in bang1 (test)
    return error.FileNotFound;
    ^
docgen_tmp/test.zig:22:5: 0x20fea3 in baz (test)
    try bang1();
    ^
docgen_tmp/test.zig:38:5: 0x20fec8 in bang2 (test)
    return error.PermissionDenied;
    ^
docgen_tmp/test.zig:30:5: 0x20ff33 in hello (test)
    try bang2();
    ^
docgen_tmp/test.zig:17:31: 0x20ffe9 in bar (test)
        error.FileNotFound => try hello(),
                              ^
docgen_tmp/test.zig:7:9: 0x210056 in foo (test)
        try bar();
        ^
docgen_tmp/test.zig:2:5: 0x2100a8 in main (test)
    try foo(12);
    ^

Look closely at this example. This is no stack trace.

You can see that the final error bubbled up was PermissionDenied, but the original error that started this whole thing was FileNotFound. In the bar function, the code handles the original error code, and then returns another one, from the switch statement. Error Return Traces make this clear, whereas a stack trace would look like this:

test.zig
pub fn main() void {
    foo(12);
}

fn foo(x: i32) void {
    if (x >= 5) {
        bar();
    } else {
        bang2();
    }
}

fn bar() void {
    if (baz()) {
        quux();
    } else {
        hello();
    }
}

fn baz() bool {
    return bang1();
}

fn quux() void {
    bang2();
}

fn hello() void {
    bang2();
}

fn bang1() bool {
    return false;
}

fn bang2() void {
    @panic("PermissionDenied");
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe test.zig

$ ./test
thread 3578235 panic: PermissionDenied
docgen_tmp/test.zig:38:5: 0x230995 in bang2 (test)
    @panic("PermissionDenied");
    ^
docgen_tmp/test.zig:30:10: 0x23c8e8 in hello (test)
    bang2();
         ^
docgen_tmp/test.zig:17:14: 0x23096a in bar (test)
        hello();
             ^
docgen_tmp/test.zig:7:12: 0x211cc4 in foo (test)
        bar();
           ^
docgen_tmp/test.zig:2:8: 0x21017d in main (test)
    foo(12);
       ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:604:22: 0x20f70c in posixCallMainAndExit (test)
            root.main();
                     ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:376:5: 0x20f211 in _start (test)
    @call(.{ .modifier = .never_inline }, posixCallMainAndExit, .{});
    ^
(process terminated by signal)

Here, the stack trace does not explain how the control flow in bar got to the hello() call. One would have to open a debugger or further instrument the application in order to find out. The error return trace, on the other hand, shows exactly how the error bubbled up.

This debugging feature makes it easier to iterate quickly on code that robustly handles all error conditions. This means that Zig developers will naturally find themselves writing correct, robust code in order to increase their development pace.

Error Return Traces are enabled by default in Debug and ReleaseSafe builds and disabled by default in ReleaseFast and ReleaseSmall builds.

There are a few ways to activate this error return tracing feature:

  • Return an error from main
  • An error makes its way to catch unreachable and you have not overridden the default panic handler
  • Use errorReturnTrace to access the current return trace. You can use std.debug.dumpStackTrace to print it. This function returns comptime-known null when building without error return tracing support.

Implementation Details §

To analyze performance cost, there are two cases:

  • when no errors are returned
  • when returning errors

For the case when no errors are returned, the cost is a single memory write operation, only in the first non-failable function in the call graph that calls a failable function, i.e. when a function returning void calls a function returning error. This is to initialize this struct in the stack memory:

stack_trace_struct.zig
pub const StackTrace = struct {
    index: usize,
    instruction_addresses: [N]usize,
};

Here, N is the maximum function call depth as determined by call graph analysis. Recursion is ignored and counts for 2.

A pointer to StackTrace is passed as a secret parameter to every function that can return an error, but it's always the first parameter, so it can likely sit in a register and stay there.

That's it for the path when no errors occur. It's practically free in terms of performance.

When generating the code for a function that returns an error, just before the return statement (only for the return statements that return errors), Zig generates a call to this function:

zig_return_error_fn.zig
// marked as "no-inline" in LLVM IR
fn __zig_return_error(stack_trace: *StackTrace) void {
    stack_trace.instruction_addresses[stack_trace.index] = @returnAddress();
    stack_trace.index = (stack_trace.index + 1) % N;
}

The cost is 2 math operations plus some memory reads and writes. The memory accessed is constrained and should remain cached for the duration of the error return bubbling.

As for code size cost, 1 function call before a return statement is no big deal. Even so, I have a plan to make the call to __zig_return_error a tail call, which brings the code size cost down to actually zero. What is a return statement in code without error return tracing can become a jump instruction in code with error return tracing.

Optionals §

One area that Zig provides safety without compromising efficiency or readability is with the optional type.

The question mark symbolizes the optional type. You can convert a type to an optional type by putting a question mark in front of it, like this:

test.zig
// normal integer
const normal_int: i32 = 1234;

// optional integer
const optional_int: ?i32 = 5678;

Now the variable optional_int could be an i32, or null.

Instead of integers, let's talk about pointers. Null references are the source of many runtime exceptions, and even stand accused of being the worst mistake of computer science.

Zig does not have them.

Instead, you can use an optional pointer. This secretly compiles down to a normal pointer, since we know we can use 0 as the null value for the optional type. But the compiler can check your work and make sure you don't assign null to something that can't be null.

Typically the downside of not having null is that it makes the code more verbose to write. But, let's compare some equivalent C code and Zig code.

Task: call malloc, if the result is null, return null.

C code

call_malloc_in_c.c
// malloc prototype included for reference
void *malloc(size_t size);

struct Foo *do_a_thing(void) {
    char *ptr = malloc(1234);
    if (!ptr) return NULL;
    // ...
}

Zig code

call_malloc_from_zig.zig
// malloc prototype included for reference
extern fn malloc(size: size_t) ?*u8;

fn doAThing() ?*Foo {
    const ptr = malloc(1234) orelse return null;
    _ = ptr; // ...
}

Here, Zig is at least as convenient, if not more, than C. And, the type of "ptr" is *u8 not ?*u8. The orelse keyword unwrapped the optional type and therefore ptr is guaranteed to be non-null everywhere it is used in the function.

The other form of checking against NULL you might see looks like this:

checking_null_in_c.c
void do_a_thing(struct Foo *foo) {
    // do some stuff

    if (foo) {
        do_something_with_foo(foo);
    }

    // do some stuff
}

In Zig you can accomplish the same thing:

checking_null_in_zig.zig
const Foo = struct{};
fn doSomethingWithFoo(foo: *Foo) void { _ = foo; }

fn doAThing(optional_foo: ?*Foo) void {
    // do some stuff

    if (optional_foo) |foo| {
      doSomethingWithFoo(foo);
    }

    // do some stuff
}

Once again, the notable thing here is that inside the if block, foo is no longer an optional pointer, it is a pointer, which cannot be null.

One benefit to this is that functions which take pointers as arguments can be annotated with the "nonnull" attribute - __attribute__((nonnull)) in GCC. The optimizer can sometimes make better decisions knowing that pointer arguments cannot be null.

Optional Type §

An optional is created by putting ? in front of a type. You can use compile-time reflection to access the child type of an optional:

test_optional_type.zig
const expect = @import("std").testing.expect;

test "optional type" {
    // Declare an optional and coerce from null:
    var foo: ?i32 = null;

    // Coerce from child type of an optional
    foo = 1234;

    // Use compile-time reflection to access the child type of the optional:
    comptime try expect(@typeInfo(@TypeOf(foo)).Optional.child == i32);
}
Shell
$ zig test test_optional_type.zig
1/1 test.optional type... OK
All 1 tests passed.

null §

Just like undefined, null has its own type, and the only way to use it is to cast it to a different type:

test.zig
const optional_value: ?i32 = null;

Optional Pointers §

An optional pointer is guaranteed to be the same size as a pointer. The null of the optional is guaranteed to be address 0.

test_optional_pointer.zig
const expect = @import("std").testing.expect;

test "optional pointers" {
    // Pointers cannot be null. If you want a null pointer, use the optional
    // prefix `?` to make the pointer type optional.
    var ptr: ?*i32 = null;

    var x: i32 = 1;
    ptr = &x;

    try expect(ptr.?.* == 1);

    // Optional pointers are the same size as normal pointers, because pointer
    // value 0 is used as the null value.
    try expect(@sizeOf(?*i32) == @sizeOf(*i32));
}
Shell
$ zig test test_optional_pointer.zig
1/1 test.optional pointers... OK
All 1 tests passed.

Casting §

A type cast converts a value of one type to another. Zig has Type Coercion for conversions that are known to be completely safe and unambiguous, and Explicit Casts for conversions that one would not want to happen on accident. There is also a third kind of type conversion called Peer Type Resolution for the case when a result type must be decided given multiple operand types.

Type Coercion §

Type coercion occurs when one type is expected, but different type is provided:

type_coercion.zig
test "type coercion - variable declaration" {
    var a: u8 = 1;
    var b: u16 = a;
    _ = b;
}

test "type coercion - function call" {
    var a: u8 = 1;
    foo(a);
}

fn foo(b: u16) void {
    _ = b;
}

test "type coercion - @as builtin" {
    var a: u8 = 1;
    var b = @as(u16, a);
    _ = b;
}
Shell
$ zig test type_coercion.zig
1/3 test.type coercion - variable declaration... OK
2/3 test.type coercion - function call... OK
3/3 test.type coercion - @as builtin... OK
All 3 tests passed.

Type coercions are only allowed when it is completely unambiguous how to get from one type to another, and the transformation is guaranteed to be safe. There is one exception, which is C Pointers.

Type Coercion: Stricter Qualification §

Values which have the same representation at runtime can be cast to increase the strictness of the qualifiers, no matter how nested the qualifiers are:

  • const - non-const to const is allowed
  • volatile - non-volatile to volatile is allowed
  • align - bigger to smaller alignment is allowed
  • error sets to supersets is allowed

These casts are no-ops at runtime since the value representation does not change.

no_op_casts.zig
test "type coercion - const qualification" {
    var a: i32 = 1;
    var b: *i32 = &a;
    foo(b);
}

fn foo(_: *const i32) void {}
Shell
$ zig test no_op_casts.zig
1/1 test.type coercion - const qualification... OK
All 1 tests passed.

In addition, pointers coerce to const optional pointers:

pointer_coerce_const_optional.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;
const mem = std.mem;

test "cast *[1][*]const u8 to [*]const ?[*]const u8" {
    const window_name = [1][*]const u8{"window name"};
    const x: [*]const ?[*]const u8 = &window_name;
    try expect(mem.eql(u8, std.mem.sliceTo(@ptrCast([*:0]const u8, x[0].?), 0), "window name"));
}
Shell
$ zig test pointer_coerce_const_optional.zig
1/1 test.cast *[1][*]const u8 to [*]const ?[*]const u8... OK
All 1 tests passed.

Type Coercion: Integer and Float Widening §

Integers coerce to integer types which can represent every value of the old type, and likewise Floats coerce to float types which can represent every value of the old type.

test_integer_widening.zig
const std = @import("std");
const builtin = @import("builtin");
const expect = std.testing.expect;
const mem = std.mem;

test "integer widening" {
    var a: u8 = 250;
    var b: u16 = a;
    var c: u32 = b;
    var d: u64 = c;
    var e: u64 = d;
    var f: u128 = e;
    try expect(f == a);
}

test "implicit unsigned integer to signed integer" {
    var a: u8 = 250;
    var b: i16 = a;
    try expect(b == 250);
}

test "float widening" {
    // Note: there is an open issue preventing this from working on aarch64:
    // https://github.com/ziglang/zig/issues/3282
    if (builtin.target.cpu.arch == .aarch64) return error.SkipZigTest;

    var a: f16 = 12.34;
    var b: f32 = a;
    var c: f64 = b;
    var d: f128 = c;
    try expect(d == a);
}
Shell
$ zig test test_integer_widening.zig
1/3 test.integer widening... OK
2/3 test.implicit unsigned integer to signed integer... OK
3/3 test.float widening... OK
All 3 tests passed.

Type Coercion: Coercion Float to Int §

A compiler error is appropriate because this ambiguous expression leaves the compiler two choices about the coercion.

  • Cast 54.0 to comptime_int resulting in @as(comptime_int, 10), which is casted to @as(f32, 10)
  • Cast 5 to comptime_float resulting in @as(comptime_float, 10.8), which is casted to @as(f32, 10.8)
test.zig
// Compile time coercion of float to int
test "implicit cast to comptime_int" {
    var f: f32 = 54.0 / 5;
    _ = f;
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig -fstage1
./docgen_tmp/test.zig:3:18: error: float value 54.000000 cannot be coerced to type 'comptime_int'
    var f: f32 = 54.0 / 5;
                 ^

Type Coercion: Slices, Arrays and Pointers §

coerce__slices_arrays_and_ptrs.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

// You can assign constant pointers to arrays to a slice with
// const modifier on the element type. Useful in particular for
// String literals.
test "*const [N]T to []const T" {
    var x1: []const u8 = "hello";
    var x2: []const u8 = &[5]u8{ 'h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 111 };
    try expect(std.mem.eql(u8, x1, x2));

    var y: []const f32 = &[2]f32{ 1.2, 3.4 };
    try expect(y[0] == 1.2);
}

// Likewise, it works when the destination type is an error union.
test "*const [N]T to E![]const T" {
    var x1: anyerror![]const u8 = "hello";
    var x2: anyerror![]const u8 = &[5]u8{ 'h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 111 };
    try expect(std.mem.eql(u8, try x1, try x2));

    var y: anyerror![]const f32 = &[2]f32{ 1.2, 3.4 };
    try expect((try y)[0] == 1.2);
}

// Likewise, it works when the destination type is an optional.
test "*const [N]T to ?[]const T" {
    var x1: ?[]const u8 = "hello";
    var x2: ?[]const u8 = &[5]u8{ 'h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 111 };
    try expect(std.mem.eql(u8, x1.?, x2.?));

    var y: ?[]const f32 = &[2]f32{ 1.2, 3.4 };
    try expect(y.?[0] == 1.2);
}

// In this cast, the array length becomes the slice length.
test "*[N]T to []T" {
    var buf: [5]u8 = "hello".*;
    const x: []u8 = &buf;
    try expect(std.mem.eql(u8, x, "hello"));

    const buf2 = [2]f32{ 1.2, 3.4 };
    const x2: []const f32 = &buf2;
    try expect(std.mem.eql(f32, x2, &[2]f32{ 1.2, 3.4 }));
}

// Single-item pointers to arrays can be coerced to many-item pointers.
test "*[N]T to [*]T" {
    var buf: [5]u8 = "hello".*;
    const x: [*]u8 = &buf;
    try expect(x[4] == 'o');
    // x[5] would be an uncaught out of bounds pointer dereference!
}

// Likewise, it works when the destination type is an optional.
test "*[N]T to ?[*]T" {
    var buf: [5]u8 = "hello".*;
    const x: ?[*]u8 = &buf;
    try expect(x.?[4] == 'o');
}

// Single-item pointers can be cast to len-1 single-item arrays.
test "*T to *[1]T" {
    var x: i32 = 1234;
    const y: *[1]i32 = &x;
    const z: [*]i32 = y;
    try expect(z[0] == 1234);
}
Shell
$ zig test coerce__slices_arrays_and_ptrs.zig
1/7 test.*const [N]T to []const T... OK
2/7 test.*const [N]T to E![]const T... OK
3/7 test.*const [N]T to ?[]const T... OK
4/7 test.*[N]T to []T... OK
5/7 test.*[N]T to [*]T... OK
6/7 test.*[N]T to ?[*]T... OK
7/7 test.*T to *[1]T... OK
All 7 tests passed.

See also:

Type Coercion: Optionals §

The payload type of Optionals, as well as null, coerce to the optional type.

test_coerce_optionals.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

test "coerce to optionals" {
    const x: ?i32 = 1234;
    const y: ?i32 = null;

    try expect(x.? == 1234);
    try expect(y == null);
}
Shell
$ zig test test_coerce_optionals.zig
1/1 test.coerce to optionals... OK
All 1 tests passed.

It works nested inside the Error Union Type, too:

test_coerce_optional_wrapped_error_union.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

test "coerce to optionals wrapped in error union" {
    const x: anyerror!?i32 = 1234;
    const y: anyerror!?i32 = null;

    try expect((try x).? == 1234);
    try expect((try y) == null);
}
Shell
$ zig test test_coerce_optional_wrapped_error_union.zig
1/1 test.coerce to optionals wrapped in error union... OK
All 1 tests passed.

Type Coercion: Error Unions §

The payload type of an Error Union Type as well as the Error Set Type coerce to the error union type:

test_coerce_to_error_union.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

test "coercion to error unions" {
    const x: anyerror!i32 = 1234;
    const y: anyerror!i32 = error.Failure;

    try expect((try x) == 1234);
    try std.testing.expectError(error.Failure, y);
}
Shell
$ zig test test_coerce_to_error_union.zig
1/1 test.coercion to error unions... OK
All 1 tests passed.

Type Coercion: Compile-Time Known Numbers §

When a number is comptime-known to be representable in the destination type, it may be coerced:

test_coerce_large_to_small.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

test "coercing large integer type to smaller one when value is comptime known to fit" {
    const x: u64 = 255;
    const y: u8 = x;
    try expect(y == 255);
}
Shell
$ zig test test_coerce_large_to_small.zig
1/1 test.coercing large integer type to smaller one when value is comptime known to fit... OK
All 1 tests passed.

Type Coercion: unions and enums §

Tagged unions can be coerced to enums, and enums can be coerced to tagged unions when they are comptime-known to be a field of the union that has only one possible value, such as void:

test_coerce_unions_enums.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

const E = enum {
    one,
    two,
    three,
};

const U = union(E) {
    one: i32,
    two: f32,
    three,
};

test "coercion between unions and enums" {
    var u = U{ .two = 12.34 };
    var e: E = u;
    try expect(e == E.two);

    const three = E.three;
    var another_u: U = three;
    try expect(another_u == E.three);
}
Shell
$ zig test test_coerce_unions_enums.zig
1/1 test.coercion between unions and enums... OK
All 1 tests passed.

See also:

Type Coercion: undefined §

undefined can be cast to any type.

Explicit Casts §

Explicit casts are performed via Builtin Functions. Some explicit casts are safe; some are not. Some explicit casts perform language-level assertions; some do not. Some explicit casts are no-ops at runtime; some are not.

  • @bitCast - change type but maintain bit representation
  • @alignCast - make a pointer have more alignment
  • @boolToInt - convert true to 1 and false to 0
  • @enumToInt - obtain the integer tag value of an enum or tagged union
  • @errSetCast - convert to a smaller error set
  • @errorToInt - obtain the integer value of an error code
  • @floatCast - convert a larger float to a smaller float
  • @floatToInt - obtain the integer part of a float value
  • @intCast - convert between integer types
  • @intToEnum - obtain an enum value based on its integer tag value
  • @intToError - obtain an error code based on its integer value
  • @intToFloat - convert an integer to a float value
  • @intToPtr - convert an address to a pointer
  • @ptrCast - convert between pointer types
  • @ptrToInt - obtain the address of a pointer
  • @truncate - convert between integer types, chopping off bits

Peer Type Resolution §

Peer Type Resolution occurs in these places:

This kind of type resolution chooses a type that all peer types can coerce into. Here are some examples:

peer_type_resolution.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;
const mem = std.mem;

test "peer resolve int widening" {
    var a: i8 = 12;
    var b: i16 = 34;
    var c = a + b;
    try expect(c == 46);
    try expect(@TypeOf(c) == i16);
}

test "peer resolve arrays of different size to const slice" {
    try expect(mem.eql(u8, boolToStr(true), "true"));
    try expect(mem.eql(u8, boolToStr(false), "false"));
    comptime try expect(mem.eql(u8, boolToStr(true), "true"));
    comptime try expect(mem.eql(u8, boolToStr(false), "false"));
}
fn boolToStr(b: bool) []const u8 {
    return if (b) "true" else "false";
}

test "peer resolve array and const slice" {
    try testPeerResolveArrayConstSlice(true);
    comptime try testPeerResolveArrayConstSlice(true);
}
fn testPeerResolveArrayConstSlice(b: bool) !void {
    const value1 = if (b) "aoeu" else @as([]const u8, "zz");
    const value2 = if (b) @as([]const u8, "zz") else "aoeu";
    try expect(mem.eql(u8, value1, "aoeu"));
    try expect(mem.eql(u8, value2, "zz"));
}

test "peer type resolution: ?T and T" {
    try expect(peerTypeTAndOptionalT(true, false).? == 0);
    try expect(peerTypeTAndOptionalT(false, false).? == 3);
    comptime {
        try expect(peerTypeTAndOptionalT(true, false).? == 0);
        try expect(peerTypeTAndOptionalT(false, false).? == 3);
    }
}
fn peerTypeTAndOptionalT(c: bool, b: bool) ?usize {
    if (c) {
        return if (b) null else @as(usize, 0);
    }

    return @as(usize, 3);
}

test "peer type resolution: *[0]u8 and []const u8" {
    try expect(peerTypeEmptyArrayAndSlice(true, "hi").len == 0);
    try expect(peerTypeEmptyArrayAndSlice(false, "hi").len == 1);
    comptime {
        try expect(peerTypeEmptyArrayAndSlice(true, "hi").len == 0);
        try expect(peerTypeEmptyArrayAndSlice(false, "hi").len == 1);
    }
}
fn peerTypeEmptyArrayAndSlice(a: bool, slice: []const u8) []const u8 {
    if (a) {
        return &[_]u8{};
    }

    return slice[0..1];
}
test "peer type resolution: *[0]u8, []const u8, and anyerror![]u8" {
    {
        var data = "hi".*;
        const slice = data[0..];
        try expect((try peerTypeEmptyArrayAndSliceAndError(true, slice)).len == 0);
        try expect((try peerTypeEmptyArrayAndSliceAndError(false, slice)).len == 1);
    }
    comptime {
        var data = "hi".*;
        const slice = data[0..];
        try expect((try peerTypeEmptyArrayAndSliceAndError(true, slice)).len == 0);
        try expect((try peerTypeEmptyArrayAndSliceAndError(false, slice)).len == 1);
    }
}
fn peerTypeEmptyArrayAndSliceAndError(a: bool, slice: []u8) anyerror![]u8 {
    if (a) {
        return &[_]u8{};
    }

    return slice[0..1];
}

test "peer type resolution: *const T and ?*T" {
    const a = @intToPtr(*const usize, 0x123456780);
    const b = @intToPtr(?*usize, 0x123456780);
    try expect(a == b);
    try expect(b == a);
}
Shell
$ zig test peer_type_resolution.zig
1/7 test.peer resolve int widening... OK
2/7 test.peer resolve arrays of different size to const slice... OK
3/7 test.peer resolve array and const slice... OK
4/7 test.peer type resolution: ?T and T... OK
5/7 test.peer type resolution: *[0]u8 and []const u8... OK
6/7 test.peer type resolution: *[0]u8, []const u8, and anyerror![]u8... OK
7/7 test.peer type resolution: *const T and ?*T... OK
All 7 tests passed.

Zero Bit Types §

For some types, @sizeOf is 0:

  • void
  • The Integers u0 and i0.
  • Arrays and Vectors with len 0, or with an element type that is a zero bit type.
  • An enum with only 1 tag.
  • A struct with all fields being zero bit types.
  • A union with only 1 field which is a zero bit type.

These types can only ever have one possible value, and thus require 0 bits to represent. Code that makes use of these types is not included in the final generated code:

test.zig
export fn entry() void {
    var x: void = {};
    var y: void = {};
    x = y;
}

When this turns into machine code, there is no code generated in the body of entry, even in Debug mode. For example, on x86_64:

0000000000000010 <entry>:
  10:	55                   	push   %rbp
  11:	48 89 e5             	mov    %rsp,%rbp
  14:	5d                   	pop    %rbp
  15:	c3                   	retq   

These assembly instructions do not have any code associated with the void values - they only perform the function call prologue and epilogue.

void §

void can be useful for instantiating generic types. For example, given a Map(Key, Value), one can pass void for the Value type to make it into a Set:

void_in_hashmap.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

test "turn HashMap into a set with void" {
    var map = std.AutoHashMap(i32, void).init(std.testing.allocator);
    defer map.deinit();

    try map.put(1, {});
    try map.put(2, {});

    try expect(map.contains(2));
    try expect(!map.contains(3));

    _ = map.remove(2);
    try expect(!map.contains(2));
}
Shell
$ zig test void_in_hashmap.zig
1/1 test.turn HashMap into a set with void... OK
All 1 tests passed.

Note that this is different from using a dummy value for the hash map value. By using void as the type of the value, the hash map entry type has no value field, and thus the hash map takes up less space. Further, all the code that deals with storing and loading the value is deleted, as seen above.

void is distinct from anyopaque. void has a known size of 0 bytes, and anyopaque has an unknown, but non-zero, size.

Expressions of type void are the only ones whose value can be ignored. For example:

test.zig
test "ignoring expression value" {
    foo();
}

fn foo() i32 {
    return 1234;
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig
docgen_tmp/test.zig:2:8: error: value of type 'i32' ignored
    foo();
    ~~~^~
docgen_tmp/test.zig:2:8: note: all non-void values must be used
docgen_tmp/test.zig:2:8: note: this error can be suppressed by assigning the value to '_'

However, if the expression has type void, there will be no error. Function return values can also be explicitly ignored by assigning them to _.

void_ignored.zig
test "void is ignored" {
    returnsVoid();
}

test "explicitly ignoring expression value" {
    _ = foo();
}

fn returnsVoid() void {}

fn foo() i32 {
    return 1234;
}
Shell
$ zig test void_ignored.zig
1/2 test.void is ignored... OK
2/2 test.explicitly ignoring expression value... OK
All 2 tests passed.

Result Location Semantics §

TODO add documentation for this

usingnamespace §

usingnamespace is a declaration that mixes all the public declarations of the operand, which must be a struct, union, enum, or opaque, into the namespace:

usingnamespace.zig
test "using std namespace" {
    const S = struct {
        usingnamespace @import("std");
    };
    try S.testing.expect(true);
}
Shell
$ zig test usingnamespace.zig
1/1 test.using std namespace... OK
All 1 tests passed.

usingnamespace has an important use case when organizing the public API of a file or package. For example, one might have c.zig with all of the C imports:

c.zig
pub usingnamespace @cImport({
    @cInclude("epoxy/gl.h");
    @cInclude("GLFW/glfw3.h");
    @cDefine("STBI_ONLY_PNG", "");
    @cDefine("STBI_NO_STDIO", "");
    @cInclude("stb_image.h");
});

The above example demonstrates using pub to qualify the usingnamespace additionally makes the imported declarations pub. This can be used to forward declarations, giving precise control over what declarations a given file exposes.

comptime §

Zig places importance on the concept of whether an expression is known at compile-time. There are a few different places this concept is used, and these building blocks are used to keep the language small, readable, and powerful.

Introducing the Compile-Time Concept §

Compile-Time Parameters §

Compile-time parameters is how Zig implements generics. It is compile-time duck typing.

test.zig
fn max(comptime T: type, a: T, b: T) T {
    return if (a > b) a else b;
}
fn gimmeTheBiggerFloat(a: f32, b: f32) f32 {
    return max(f32, a, b);
}
fn gimmeTheBiggerInteger(a: u64, b: u64) u64 {
    return max(u64, a, b);
}

In Zig, types are first-class citizens. They can be assigned to variables, passed as parameters to functions, and returned from functions. However, they can only be used in expressions which are known at compile-time, which is why the parameter T in the above snippet must be marked with comptime.

A comptime parameter means that:

  • At the callsite, the value must be known at compile-time, or it is a compile error.
  • In the function definition, the value is known at compile-time.

For example, if we were to introduce another function to the above snippet:

test.zig
fn max(comptime T: type, a: T, b: T) T {
    return if (a > b) a else b;
}
test "try to pass a runtime type" {
    foo(false);
}
fn foo(condition: bool) void {
    const result = max(
        if (condition) f32 else u64,
        1234,
        5678);
    _ = result;
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig
docgen_tmp/test.zig:9:13: error: unable to resolve comptime value
        if (condition) f32 else u64,
            ^~~~~~~~~
docgen_tmp/test.zig:9:13: note: condition in comptime branch must be comptime-known
referenced by:
    test.try to pass a runtime type: docgen_tmp/test.zig:5:5
    remaining reference traces hidden; use '-freference-trace' to see all reference traces


This is an error because the programmer attempted to pass a value only known at run-time to a function which expects a value known at compile-time.

Another way to get an error is if we pass a type that violates the type checker when the function is analyzed. This is what it means to have compile-time duck typing.

For example:

test.zig
fn max(comptime T: type, a: T, b: T) T {
    return if (a > b) a else b;
}
test "try to compare bools" {
    _ = max(bool, true, false);
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig
docgen_tmp/test.zig:2:18: error: operator > not allowed for type 'bool'
    return if (a > b) a else b;
               ~~^~~
referenced by:
    test.try to compare bools: docgen_tmp/test.zig:5:9
    remaining reference traces hidden; use '-freference-trace' to see all reference traces


On the flip side, inside the function definition with the comptime parameter, the value is known at compile-time. This means that we actually could make this work for the bool type if we wanted to:

comptime_max_with_bool.zig
fn max(comptime T: type, a: T, b: T) T {
    if (T == bool) {
        return a or b;
    } else if (a > b) {
        return a;
    } else {
        return b;
    }
}
test "try to compare bools" {
    try @import("std").testing.expect(max(bool, false, true) == true);
}
Shell
$ zig test comptime_max_with_bool.zig
1/1 test.try to compare bools... OK
All 1 tests passed.

This works because Zig implicitly inlines if expressions when the condition is known at compile-time, and the compiler guarantees that it will skip analysis of the branch not taken.

This means that the actual function generated for max in this situation looks like this:

test.zig
fn max(a: bool, b: bool) bool {
    return a or b;
}

All the code that dealt with compile-time known values is eliminated and we are left with only the necessary run-time code to accomplish the task.

This works the same way for switch expressions - they are implicitly inlined when the target expression is compile-time known.

Compile-Time Variables §

In Zig, the programmer can label variables as comptime. This guarantees to the compiler that every load and store of the variable is performed at compile-time. Any violation of this results in a compile error.

This combined with the fact that we can inline loops allows us to write a function which is partially evaluated at compile-time and partially at run-time.

For example:

comptime_vars.zig
const expect = @import("std").testing.expect;

const CmdFn = struct {
    name: []const u8,
    func: fn(i32) i32,
};

const cmd_fns = [_]CmdFn{
    CmdFn {.name = "one", .func = one},
    CmdFn {.name = "two", .func = two},
    CmdFn {.name = "three", .func = three},
};
fn one(value: i32) i32 { return value + 1; }
fn two(value: i32) i32 { return value + 2; }
fn three(value: i32) i32 { return value + 3; }

fn performFn(comptime prefix_char: u8, start_value: i32) i32 {
    var result: i32 = start_value;
    comptime var i = 0;
    inline while (i < cmd_fns.len) : (i += 1) {
        if (cmd_fns[i].name[0] == prefix_char) {
            result = cmd_fns[i].func(result);
        }
    }
    return result;
}

test "perform fn" {
    try expect(performFn('t', 1) == 6);
    try expect(performFn('o', 0) == 1);
    try expect(performFn('w', 99) == 99);
}
Shell
$ zig test comptime_vars.zig
1/1 test.perform fn... OK
All 1 tests passed.

This example is a bit contrived, because the compile-time evaluation component is unnecessary; this code would work fine if it was all done at run-time. But it does end up generating different code. In this example, the function performFn is generated three different times, for the different values of prefix_char provided:

performFn_1
// From the line:
// expect(performFn('t', 1) == 6);
fn performFn(start_value: i32) i32 {
    var result: i32 = start_value;
    result = two(result);
    result = three(result);
    return result;
}
performFn_2
// From the line:
// expect(performFn('o', 0) == 1);
fn performFn(start_value: i32) i32 {
    var result: i32 = start_value;
    result = one(result);
    return result;
}
performFn_3
// From the line:
// expect(performFn('w', 99) == 99);
fn performFn(start_value: i32) i32 {
    var result: i32 = start_value;
    return result;
}

Note that this happens even in a debug build; in a release build these generated functions still pass through rigorous LLVM optimizations. The important thing to note, however, is not that this is a way to write more optimized code, but that it is a way to make sure that what should happen at compile-time, does happen at compile-time. This catches more errors and as demonstrated later in this article, allows expressiveness that in other languages requires using macros, generated code, or a preprocessor to accomplish.

Compile-Time Expressions §

In Zig, it matters whether a given expression is known at compile-time or run-time. A programmer can use a comptime expression to guarantee that the expression will be evaluated at compile-time. If this cannot be accomplished, the compiler will emit an error. For example:

test.zig
extern fn exit() noreturn;

test "foo" {
    comptime {
        exit();
    }
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig
docgen_tmp/test.zig:5:13: error: comptime call of extern function
        exit();
        ~~~~^~

It doesn't make sense that a program could call exit() (or any other external function) at compile-time, so this is a compile error. However, a comptime expression does much more than sometimes cause a compile error.

Within a comptime expression:

  • All variables are comptime variables.
  • All if, while, for, and switch expressions are evaluated at compile-time, or emit a compile error if this is not possible.
  • All function calls cause the compiler to interpret the function at compile-time, emitting a compile error if the function tries to do something that has global run-time side effects.

This means that a programmer can create a function which is called both at compile-time and run-time, with no modification to the function required.

Let's look at an example:

fibonacci_recursion.zig
const expect = @import("std").testing.expect;

fn fibonacci(index: u32) u32 {
    if (index < 2) return index;
    return fibonacci(index - 1) + fibonacci(index - 2);
}

test "fibonacci" {
    // test fibonacci at run-time
    try expect(fibonacci(7) == 13);

    // test fibonacci at compile-time
    comptime {
        try expect(fibonacci(7) == 13);
    }
}
Shell
$ zig test fibonacci_recursion.zig
1/1 test.fibonacci... OK
All 1 tests passed.

Imagine if we had forgotten the base case of the recursive function and tried to run the tests:

test.zig
const expect = @import("std").testing.expect;

fn fibonacci(index: u32) u32 {
    //if (index < 2) return index;
    return fibonacci(index - 1) + fibonacci(index - 2);
}

test "fibonacci" {
    comptime {
        try expect(fibonacci(7) == 13);
    }
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig
docgen_tmp/test.zig:5:28: error: overflow of integer type 'u32' with value '-1'
    return fibonacci(index - 1) + fibonacci(index - 2);
                     ~~~~~~^~~
docgen_tmp/test.zig:5:21: note: called from here (7 times)
    return fibonacci(index - 1) + fibonacci(index - 2);
           ~~~~~~~~~^~~~~~~~~~~
docgen_tmp/test.zig:10:29: note: called from here
        try expect(fibonacci(7) == 13);
                   ~~~~~~~~~^~~

The compiler produces an error which is a stack trace from trying to evaluate the function at compile-time.

Luckily, we used an unsigned integer, and so when we tried to subtract 1 from 0, it triggered undefined behavior, which is always a compile error if the compiler knows it happened. But what would have happened if we used a signed integer?

test.zig
const assert = @import("std").debug.assert;

fn fibonacci(index: i32) i32 {
    //if (index < 2) return index;
    return fibonacci(index - 1) + fibonacci(index - 2);
}

test "fibonacci" {
    comptime {
        try assert(fibonacci(7) == 13);
    }
}

The compiler is supposed to notice that evaluating this function at compile-time took more than 1000 branches, and thus emits an error and gives up. If the programmer wants to increase the budget for compile-time computation, they can use a built-in function called @setEvalBranchQuota to change the default number 1000 to something else.

However, there is a design flaw in the compiler causing it to stack overflow instead of having the proper behavior here. I'm terribly sorry about that. I hope to get this resolved before the next release.

What if we fix the base case, but put the wrong value in the expect line?

test.zig
const assert = @import("std").debug.assert;

fn fibonacci(index: i32) i32 {
    if (index < 2) return index;
    return fibonacci(index - 1) + fibonacci(index - 2);
}

test "fibonacci" {
    comptime {
        try assert(fibonacci(7) == 99999);
    }
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/debug.zig:278:14: error: reached unreachable code
    if (!ok) unreachable; // assertion failure
             ^~~~~~~~~~~
docgen_tmp/test.zig:10:19: note: called from here
        try assert(fibonacci(7) == 99999);
            ~~~~~~^~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

At container level (outside of any function), all expressions are implicitly comptime expressions. This means that we can use functions to initialize complex static data. For example:

N_primes.zig
const first_25_primes = firstNPrimes(25);
const sum_of_first_25_primes = sum(&first_25_primes);

fn firstNPrimes(comptime n: usize) [n]i32 {
    var prime_list: [n]i32 = undefined;
    var next_index: usize = 0;
    var test_number: i32 = 2;
    while (next_index < prime_list.len) : (test_number += 1) {
        var test_prime_index: usize = 0;
        var is_prime = true;
        while (test_prime_index < next_index) : (test_prime_index += 1) {
            if (test_number % prime_list[test_prime_index] == 0) {
                is_prime = false;
                break;
            }
        }
        if (is_prime) {
            prime_list[next_index] = test_number;
            next_index += 1;
        }
    }
    return prime_list;
}

fn sum(numbers: []const i32) i32 {
    var result: i32 = 0;
    for (numbers) |x| {
        result += x;
    }
    return result;
}

test "variable values" {
    try @import("std").testing.expect(sum_of_first_25_primes == 1060);
}
Shell
$ zig test N_primes.zig
1/1 test.variable values... OK
All 1 tests passed.

When we compile this program, Zig generates the constants with the answer pre-computed. Here are the lines from the generated LLVM IR:

@0 = internal unnamed_addr constant [25 x i32] [i32 2, i32 3, i32 5, i32 7, i32 11, i32 13, i32 17, i32 19, i32 23, i32 29, i32 31, i32 37, i32 41, i32 43, i32 47, i32 53, i32 59, i32 61, i32 67, i32 71, i32 73, i32 79, i32 83, i32 89, i32 97]
@1 = internal unnamed_addr constant i32 1060

Note that we did not have to do anything special with the syntax of these functions. For example, we could call the sum function as is with a slice of numbers whose length and values were only known at run-time.

Generic Data Structures §

Zig uses these capabilities to implement generic data structures without introducing any special-case syntax. If you followed along so far, you may already know how to create a generic data structure.

Here is an example of a generic List data structure.

test.zig
fn List(comptime T: type) type {
    return struct {
        items: []T,
        len: usize,
    };
}

// The generic List data structure can be instantiated by passing in a type:
var buffer: [10]i32 = undefined;
var list = List(i32){
    .items = &buffer,
    .len = 0,
};

That's it. It's a function that returns an anonymous struct. To keep the language small and uniform, all aggregate types in Zig are anonymous. For the purposes of error messages and debugging, Zig infers the name "List(i32)" from the function name and parameters invoked when creating the anonymous struct.

To explicitly give a type a name, we assign it to a constant.

test.zig
const Node = struct {
    next: ?*Node,
    name: []const u8,
};

var node_a = Node{
    .next = null,
    .name = &"Node A",
};

var node_b = Node{
    .next = &node_a,
    .name = &"Node B",
};

In this example, the Node struct refers to itself. This works because all top level declarations are order-independent. As long as the compiler can determine the size of the struct, it is free to refer to itself. In this case, Node refers to itself as a pointer, which has a well-defined size at compile time, so it works fine.

Case Study: print in Zig §

Putting all of this together, let's see how print works in Zig.

print.zig
const print = @import("std").debug.print;

const a_number: i32 = 1234;
const a_string = "foobar";

pub fn main() void {
    print("here is a string: '{s}' here is a number: {}\n", .{a_string, a_number});
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe print.zig

$ ./print
here is a string: 'foobar' here is a number: 1234

Let's crack open the implementation of this and see how it works:

poc_print_fn.zig
const Writer = struct {
    /// Calls print and then flushes the buffer.
    pub fn print(self: *Writer, comptime format: []const u8, args: anytype) anyerror!void {
        const State = enum {
            start,
            open_brace,
            close_brace,
        };

        comptime var start_index: usize = 0;
        comptime var state = State.start;
        comptime var next_arg: usize = 0;

        inline for (format) |c, i| {
            switch (state) {
                State.start => switch (c) {
                    '{' => {
                        if (start_index < i) try self.write(format[start_index..i]);
                        state = State.open_brace;
                    },
                    '}' => {
                        if (start_index < i) try self.write(format[start_index..i]);
                        state = State.close_brace;
                    },
                    else => {},
                },
                State.open_brace => switch (c) {
                    '{' => {
                        state = State.start;
                        start_index = i;
                    },
                    '}' => {
                        try self.printValue(args[next_arg]);
                        next_arg += 1;
                        state = State.start;
                        start_index = i + 1;
                    },
                    's' => {
                        continue;
                    },
                    else => @compileError("Unknown format character: " ++ [1]u8{c}),
                },
                State.close_brace => switch (c) {
                    '}' => {
                        state = State.start;
                        start_index = i;
                    },
                    else => @compileError("Single '}' encountered in format string"),
                },
            }
        }
        comptime {
            if (args.len != next_arg) {
                @compileError("Unused arguments");
            }
            if (state != State.start) {
                @compileError("Incomplete format string: " ++ format);
            }
        }
        if (start_index < format.len) {
            try self.write(format[start_index..format.len]);
        }
        try self.flush();
    }

    fn write(self: *Writer, value: []const u8) !void {
        _ = self;
        _ = value;
    }
    pub fn printValue(self: *Writer, value: anytype) !void {
        _ = self;
        _ = value;
    }
    fn flush(self: *Writer) !void {
        _ = self;
    }
};

This is a proof of concept implementation; the actual function in the standard library has more formatting capabilities.

Note that this is not hard-coded into the Zig compiler; this is userland code in the standard library.

When this function is analyzed from our example code above, Zig partially evaluates the function and emits a function that actually looks like this:

Emitted print Function
pub fn print(self: *Writer, arg0: []const u8, arg1: i32) !void {
    try self.write("here is a string: '");
    try self.printValue(arg0);
    try self.write("' here is a number: ");
    try self.printValue(arg1);
    try self.write("\n");
    try self.flush();
}

printValue is a function that takes a parameter of any type, and does different things depending on the type:

poc_printValue_fn.zig
const Writer = struct {
    pub fn printValue(self: *Writer, value: anytype) !void {
        switch (@typeInfo(@TypeOf(value))) {
            .Int => {
                return self.writeInt(value);
            },
            .Float => {
                return self.writeFloat(value);
            },
            .Pointer => {
                return self.write(value);
            },
            else => {
                @compileError("Unable to print type '" ++ @typeName(@TypeOf(value)) ++ "'");
            },
        }
    }

    fn write(self: *Writer, value: []const u8) !void {
        _ = self;
        _ = value;
    }
    fn writeInt(self: *Writer, value: anytype) !void {
        _ = self;
        _ = value;
    }
    fn writeFloat(self: *Writer, value: anytype) !void {
        _ = self;
        _ = value;
    }
};

And now, what happens if we give too many arguments to print?

test.zig
const print = @import("std").debug.print;

const a_number: i32 = 1234;
const a_string = "foobar";

test "print too many arguments" {
    print("here is a string: '{s}' here is a number: {}\n", .{
        a_string,
        a_number,
        a_number,
    });
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/fmt.zig:201:18: error: unused argument in 'here is a string: '{s}' here is a number: {}
                                                                                              '
            1 => @compileError("unused argument in '" ++ fmt ++ "'"),
                 ^~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
referenced by:
    print__anon_2775: /home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/io/writer.zig:28:27
    print__anon_1080: /home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/debug.zig:93:21
    remaining reference traces hidden; use '-freference-trace' to see all reference traces


Zig gives programmers the tools needed to protect themselves against their own mistakes.

Zig doesn't care whether the format argument is a string literal, only that it is a compile-time known value that can be coerced to a []const u8:

print.zig
const print = @import("std").debug.print;

const a_number: i32 = 1234;
const a_string = "foobar";
const fmt = "here is a string: '{s}' here is a number: {}\n";

pub fn main() void {
    print(fmt, .{a_string, a_number});
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe print.zig

$ ./print
here is a string: 'foobar' here is a number: 1234

This works fine.

Zig does not special case string formatting in the compiler and instead exposes enough power to accomplish this task in userland. It does so without introducing another language on top of Zig, such as a macro language or a preprocessor language. It's Zig all the way down.

See also:

Assembly §

For some use cases, it may be necessary to directly control the machine code generated by Zig programs, rather than relying on Zig's code generation. For these cases, one can use inline assembly. Here is an example of implementing Hello, World on x86_64 Linux using inline assembly:

test.zig
pub fn main() noreturn {
    const msg = "hello world\n";
    _ = syscall3(SYS_write, STDOUT_FILENO, @ptrToInt(msg), msg.len);
    _ = syscall1(SYS_exit, 0);
    unreachable;
}

pub const SYS_write = 1;
pub const SYS_exit = 60;

pub const STDOUT_FILENO = 1;

pub fn syscall1(number: usize, arg1: usize) usize {
    return asm volatile ("syscall"
        : [ret] "={rax}" (-> usize)
        : [number] "{rax}" (number),
          [arg1] "{rdi}" (arg1)
        : "rcx", "r11"
    );
}

pub fn syscall3(number: usize, arg1: usize, arg2: usize, arg3: usize) usize {
    return asm volatile ("syscall"
        : [ret] "={rax}" (-> usize)
        : [number] "{rax}" (number),
          [arg1] "{rdi}" (arg1),
          [arg2] "{rsi}" (arg2),
          [arg3] "{rdx}" (arg3)
        : "rcx", "r11"
    );
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe test.zig -fstage1-target x86_64-linux

$ ./test
hello world

Dissecting the syntax:

Assembly Syntax Explained
// Inline assembly is an expression which returns a value.
// the `asm` keyword begins the expression.
_ = asm
// `volatile` is an optional modifier that tells Zig this
// inline assembly expression has side-effects. Without
// `volatile`, Zig is allowed to delete the inline assembly
// code if the result is unused.
volatile (
// Next is a comptime string which is the assembly code.
// Inside this string one may use `%[ret]`, `%[number]`,
// or `%[arg1]` where a register is expected, to specify
// the register that Zig uses for the argument or return value,
// if the register constraint strings are used. However in
// the below code, this is not used. A literal `%` can be
// obtained by escaping it with a double percent: `%%`.
// Often multiline string syntax comes in handy here.
    \\syscall
// Next is the output. It is possible in the future Zig will
// support multiple outputs, depending on how
// https://github.com/ziglang/zig/issues/215 is resolved.
// It is allowed for there to be no outputs, in which case
// this colon would be directly followed by the colon for the inputs.
    :
// This specifies the name to be used in `%[ret]` syntax in
// the above assembly string. This example does not use it,
// but the syntax is mandatory.
    [ret]
// Next is the output constraint string. This feature is still
// considered unstable in Zig, and so LLVM/GCC documentation
// must be used to understand the semantics.
// http://releases.llvm.org/10.0.0/docs/LangRef.html#inline-asm-constraint-string
// https://gcc.gnu.org/onlinedocs/gcc/Extended-Asm.html
// In this example, the constraint string means "the result value of
// this inline assembly instruction is whatever is in $rax".
    "={rax}"
// Next is either a value binding, or `->` and then a type. The
// type is the result type of the inline assembly expression.
// If it is a value binding, then `%[ret]` syntax would be used
// to refer to the register bound to the value.
    (-> usize)
// Next is the list of inputs.
// The constraint for these inputs means, "when the assembly code is
// executed, $rax shall have the value of `number` and $rdi shall have
// the value of `arg1`". Any number of input parameters is allowed,
// including none.
    : [number] "{rax}" (number),
        [arg1] "{rdi}" (arg1)
// Next is the list of clobbers. These declare a set of registers whose
// values will not be preserved by the execution of this assembly code.
// These do not include output or input registers. The special clobber
// value of "memory" means that the assembly writes to arbitrary undeclared
// memory locations - not only the memory pointed to by a declared indirect
// output. In this example we list $rcx and $r11 because it is known the
// kernel syscall does not preserve these registers.
    : "rcx", "r11"
);

For i386 and x86_64 targets, the syntax is AT&T syntax, rather than the more popular Intel syntax. This is due to technical constraints; assembly parsing is provided by LLVM and its support for Intel syntax is buggy and not well tested.

Some day Zig may have its own assembler. This would allow it to integrate more seamlessly into the language, as well as be compatible with the popular NASM syntax. This documentation section will be updated before 1.0.0 is released, with a conclusive statement about the status of AT&T vs Intel/NASM syntax.

Output Constraints §

Output constraints are still considered to be unstable in Zig, and so LLVM documentation and GCC documentation must be used to understand the semantics.

Note that some breaking changes to output constraints are planned with issue #215.

Input Constraints §

Input constraints are still considered to be unstable in Zig, and so LLVM documentation and GCC documentation must be used to understand the semantics.

Note that some breaking changes to input constraints are planned with issue #215.

Clobbers §

Clobbers are the set of registers whose values will not be preserved by the execution of the assembly code. These do not include output or input registers. The special clobber value of "memory" means that the assembly causes writes to arbitrary undeclared memory locations - not only the memory pointed to by a declared indirect output.

Failure to declare the full set of clobbers for a given inline assembly expression is unchecked Undefined Behavior.

Global Assembly §

When an assembly expression occurs in a container level comptime block, this is global assembly.

This kind of assembly has different rules than inline assembly. First, volatile is not valid because all global assembly is unconditionally included. Second, there are no inputs, outputs, or clobbers. All global assembly is concatenated verbatim into one long string and assembled together. There are no template substitution rules regarding % as there are in inline assembly expressions.

global-asm.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

comptime {
    asm (
        \\.global my_func;
        \\.type my_func, @function;
        \\my_func:
        \\  lea (%rdi,%rsi,1),%eax
        \\  retq
    );
}

extern fn my_func(a: i32, b: i32) i32;

test "global assembly" {
    try expect(my_func(12, 34) == 46);
}
Shell
$ zig test global-asm.zig -target x86_64-linux
1/1 test.global assembly... OK
All 1 tests passed.

Atomics §

TODO: @fence()

TODO: @atomic rmw

TODO: builtin atomic memory ordering enum

Async Functions §

When a function is called, a frame is pushed to the stack, the function runs until it reaches a return statement, and then the frame is popped from the stack. The code following the callsite does not run until the function returns.

An async function is a function whose execution is split into an async initiation, followed by an await completion. Its frame is provided explicitly by the caller, and it can be suspended and resumed any number of times.

The code following the async callsite runs immediately after the async function first suspends. When the return value of the async function is needed, the calling code can await on the async function frame. This will suspend the calling code until the async function completes, at which point execution resumes just after the await callsite.

Zig infers that a function is async when it observes that the function contains a suspension point. Async functions can be called the same as normal functions. A function call of an async function is a suspend point.

Suspend and Resume §

At any point, a function may suspend itself. This causes control flow to return to the callsite (in the case of the first suspension), or resumer (in the case of subsequent suspensions).

suspend_no_resume.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

var x: i32 = 1;

test "suspend with no resume" {
    var frame = async func();
    try expect(x == 2);
    _ = frame;
}

fn func() void {
    x += 1;
    suspend {}
    // This line is never reached because the suspend has no matching resume.
    x += 1;
}
Shell
$ zig test suspend_no_resume.zig -fstage1
1/1 test "suspend with no resume"... OK
All 1 tests passed.

In the same way that each allocation should have a corresponding free, Each suspend should have a corresponding resume. A suspend block allows a function to put a pointer to its own frame somewhere, for example into an event loop, even if that action will perform a resume operation on a different thread. @frame provides access to the async function frame pointer.

async_suspend_block.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

var the_frame: anyframe = undefined;
var result = false;

test "async function suspend with block" {
    _ = async testSuspendBlock();
    try expect(!result);
    resume the_frame;
    try expect(result);
}

fn testSuspendBlock() void {
    suspend {
        comptime try expect(@TypeOf(@frame()) == *@Frame(testSuspendBlock));
        the_frame = @frame();
    }
    result = true;
}
Shell
$ zig test async_suspend_block.zig -fstage1
1/1 test "async function suspend with block"... OK
All 1 tests passed.

suspend causes a function to be async.

Resuming from Suspend Blocks §

Upon entering a suspend block, the async function is already considered suspended, and can be resumed. For example, if you started another kernel thread, and had that thread call resume on the frame pointer provided by the @frame, the new thread would begin executing after the suspend block, while the old thread continued executing the suspend block.

However, the async function can be directly resumed from the suspend block, in which case it never returns to its resumer and continues executing.

resume_from_suspend.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

test "resume from suspend" {
    var my_result: i32 = 1;
    _ = async testResumeFromSuspend(&my_result);
    try std.testing.expect(my_result == 2);
}
fn testResumeFromSuspend(my_result: *i32) void {
    suspend {
        resume @frame();
    }
    my_result.* += 1;
    suspend {}
    my_result.* += 1;
}
Shell
$ zig test resume_from_suspend.zig -fstage1
1/1 test "resume from suspend"... OK
All 1 tests passed.

This is guaranteed to tail call, and therefore will not cause a new stack frame.

Async and Await §

In the same way that every suspend has a matching resume, every async has a matching await in standard code.

However, it is possible to have an async call without a matching await. Upon completion of the async function, execution would continue at the most recent async callsite or resume callsite, and the return value of the async function would be lost.

async_await.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

test "async and await" {
    // The test block is not async and so cannot have a suspend
    // point in it. By using the nosuspend keyword, we promise that
    // the code in amain will finish executing without suspending
    // back to the test block.
    nosuspend amain();
}

fn amain() void {
    var frame = async func();
    comptime try expect(@TypeOf(frame) == @Frame(func));

    const ptr: anyframe->void = &frame;
    const any_ptr: anyframe = ptr;

    resume any_ptr;
    await ptr;
}

fn func() void {
    suspend {}
}
Shell
$ zig test async_await.zig -fstage1
1/1 test "async and await"... OK
All 1 tests passed.

The await keyword is used to coordinate with an async function's return statement.

await is a suspend point, and takes as an operand anything that coerces to anyframe->T. Calling await on the frame of an async function will cause execution to continue at the await callsite once the target function completes.

There is a common misconception that await resumes the target function. It is the other way around: it suspends until the target function completes. In the event that the target function has already completed, await does not suspend; instead it copies the return value directly from the target function's frame.

async_await_sequence.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

var the_frame: anyframe = undefined;
var final_result: i32 = 0;

test "async function await" {
    seq('a');
    _ = async amain();
    seq('f');
    resume the_frame;
    seq('i');
    try expect(final_result == 1234);
    try expect(std.mem.eql(u8, &seq_points, "abcdefghi"));
}
fn amain() void {
    seq('b');
    var f = async another();
    seq('e');
    final_result = await f;
    seq('h');
}
fn another() i32 {
    seq('c');
    suspend {
        seq('d');
        the_frame = @frame();
    }
    seq('g');
    return 1234;
}

var seq_points = [_]u8{0} ** "abcdefghi".len;
var seq_index: usize = 0;

fn seq(c: u8) void {
    seq_points[seq_index] = c;
    seq_index += 1;
}
Shell
$ zig test async_await_sequence.zig -fstage1
1/1 test "async function await"... OK
All 1 tests passed.

In general, suspend is lower level than await. Most application code will use only async and await, but event loop implementations will make use of suspend internally.

Async Function Example §

Putting all of this together, here is an example of typical async/await usage:

async.zig
const std = @import("std");
const Allocator = std.mem.Allocator;

pub fn main() void {
    _ = async amainWrap();

    // Typically we would use an event loop to manage resuming async functions,
    // but in this example we hard code what the event loop would do,
    // to make things deterministic.
    resume global_file_frame;
    resume global_download_frame;
}

fn amainWrap() void {
    amain() catch |e| {
        std.debug.print("{}\n", .{e});
        if (@errorReturnTrace()) |trace| {
            std.debug.dumpStackTrace(trace.*);
        }
        std.process.exit(1);
    };
}

fn amain() !void {
    const allocator = std.heap.page_allocator;
    var download_frame = async fetchUrl(allocator, "https://example.com/");
    var awaited_download_frame = false;
    errdefer if (!awaited_download_frame) {
        if (await download_frame) |r| allocator.free(r) else |_| {}
    };

    var file_frame = async readFile(allocator, "something.txt");
    var awaited_file_frame = false;
    errdefer if (!awaited_file_frame) {
        if (await file_frame) |r| allocator.free(r) else |_| {}
    };

    awaited_file_frame = true;
    const file_text = try await file_frame;
    defer allocator.free(file_text);

    awaited_download_frame = true;
    const download_text = try await download_frame;
    defer allocator.free(download_text);

    std.debug.print("download_text: {s}\n", .{download_text});
    std.debug.print("file_text: {s}\n", .{file_text});
}

var global_download_frame: anyframe = undefined;
fn fetchUrl(allocator: Allocator, url: []const u8) ![]u8 {
    _ = url; // this is just an example, we don't actually do it!
    const result = try allocator.dupe(u8, "this is the downloaded url contents");
    errdefer allocator.free(result);
    suspend {
        global_download_frame = @frame();
    }
    std.debug.print("fetchUrl returning\n", .{});
    return result;
}

var global_file_frame: anyframe = undefined;
fn readFile(allocator: Allocator, filename: []const u8) ![]u8 {
    _ = filename; // this is just an example, we don't actually do it!
    const result = try allocator.dupe(u8, "this is the file contents");
    errdefer allocator.free(result);
    suspend {
        global_file_frame = @frame();
    }
    std.debug.print("readFile returning\n", .{});
    return result;
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe async.zig -fstage1

$ ./async
readFile returning
fetchUrl returning
download_text: this is the downloaded url contents
file_text: this is the file contents

Now we remove the suspend and resume code, and observe the same behavior, with one tiny difference:

blocking.zig
const std = @import("std");
const Allocator = std.mem.Allocator;

pub fn main() void {
    _ = async amainWrap();
}

fn amainWrap() void {
    amain() catch |e| {
        std.debug.print("{}\n", .{e});
        if (@errorReturnTrace()) |trace| {
            std.debug.dumpStackTrace(trace.*);
        }
        std.process.exit(1);
    };
}

fn amain() !void {
    const allocator = std.heap.page_allocator;
    var download_frame = async fetchUrl(allocator, "https://example.com/");
    var awaited_download_frame = false;
    errdefer if (!awaited_download_frame) {
        if (await download_frame) |r| allocator.free(r) else |_| {}
    };

    var file_frame = async readFile(allocator, "something.txt");
    var awaited_file_frame = false;
    errdefer if (!awaited_file_frame) {
        if (await file_frame) |r| allocator.free(r) else |_| {}
    };

    awaited_file_frame = true;
    const file_text = try await file_frame;
    defer allocator.free(file_text);

    awaited_download_frame = true;
    const download_text = try await download_frame;
    defer allocator.free(download_text);

    std.debug.print("download_text: {s}\n", .{download_text});
    std.debug.print("file_text: {s}\n", .{file_text});
}

fn fetchUrl(allocator: Allocator, url: []const u8) ![]u8 {
    _ = url; // this is just an example, we don't actually do it!
    const result = try allocator.dupe(u8, "this is the downloaded url contents");
    errdefer allocator.free(result);
    std.debug.print("fetchUrl returning\n", .{});
    return result;
}

fn readFile(allocator: Allocator, filename: []const u8) ![]u8 {
    _ = filename; // this is just an example, we don't actually do it!
    const result = try allocator.dupe(u8, "this is the file contents");
    errdefer allocator.free(result);
    std.debug.print("readFile returning\n", .{});
    return result;
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe blocking.zig -fstage1

$ ./blocking
fetchUrl returning
readFile returning
download_text: this is the downloaded url contents
file_text: this is the file contents

Previously, the fetchUrl and readFile functions suspended, and were resumed in an order determined by the main function. Now, since there are no suspend points, the order of the printed "... returning" messages is determined by the order of async callsites.

Builtin Functions §

Builtin functions are provided by the compiler and are prefixed with @. The comptime keyword on a parameter means that the parameter must be known at compile time.

@addrSpaceCast §

@addrSpaceCast(comptime addrspace: std.builtin.AddressSpace, ptr: anytype) anytype

Converts a pointer from one address space to another. Depending on the current target and address spaces, this cast may be a no-op, a complex operation, or illegal. If the cast is legal, then the resulting pointer points to the same memory location as the pointer operand. It is always valid to cast a pointer between the same address spaces.

@addWithOverflow §

@addWithOverflow(comptime T: type, a: T, b: T, result: *T) bool

Performs result.* = a + b. If overflow or underflow occurs, stores the overflowed bits in result and returns true. If no overflow or underflow occurs, returns false.

@alignCast §

@alignCast(comptime alignment: u29, ptr: anytype) anytype

ptr can be *T, ?*T, or []T. It returns the same type as ptr except with the alignment adjusted to the new value.

A pointer alignment safety check is added to the generated code to make sure the pointer is aligned as promised.

@alignOf §

@alignOf(comptime T: type) comptime_int

This function returns the number of bytes that this type should be aligned to for the current target to match the C ABI. When the child type of a pointer has this alignment, the alignment can be omitted from the type.

const assert = @import("std").debug.assert;
comptime {
    assert(*u32 == *align(@alignOf(u32)) u32);
}

The result is a target-specific compile time constant. It is guaranteed to be less than or equal to @sizeOf(T).

See also:

@as §

@as(comptime T: type, expression) T

Performs Type Coercion. This cast is allowed when the conversion is unambiguous and safe, and is the preferred way to convert between types, whenever possible.

@asyncCall §

@asyncCall(frame_buffer: []align(@alignOf(@Frame(anyAsyncFunction))) u8, result_ptr, function_ptr, args: anytype) anyframe->T

@asyncCall performs an async call on a function pointer, which may or may not be an async function.

The provided frame_buffer must be large enough to fit the entire function frame. This size can be determined with @frameSize. To provide a too-small buffer invokes safety-checked Undefined Behavior.

result_ptr is optional (null may be provided). If provided, the function call will write its result directly to the result pointer, which will be available to read after await completes. Any result location provided to await will copy the result from result_ptr.

async_struct_field_fn_pointer.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

test "async fn pointer in a struct field" {
    var data: i32 = 1;
    const Foo = struct {
        bar: fn (*i32) callconv(.Async) void,
    };
    var foo = Foo{ .bar = func };
    var bytes: [64]u8 align(@alignOf(@Frame(func))) = undefined;
    const f = @asyncCall(&bytes, {}, foo.bar, .{&data});
    try expect(data == 2);
    resume f;
    try expect(data == 4);
}

fn func(y: *i32) void {
    defer y.* += 2;
    y.* += 1;
    suspend {}
}
Shell
$ zig test async_struct_field_fn_pointer.zig -fstage1
1/1 test "async fn pointer in a struct field"... OK
All 1 tests passed.

@atomicLoad §

@atomicLoad(comptime T: type, ptr: *const T, comptime ordering: builtin.AtomicOrder) T

This builtin function atomically dereferences a pointer and returns the value.

T must be a pointer, a bool, a float, an integer or an enum.

See also:

@atomicRmw §

@atomicRmw(comptime T: type, ptr: *T, comptime op: builtin.AtomicRmwOp, operand: T, comptime ordering: builtin.AtomicOrder) T

This builtin function atomically modifies memory and then returns the previous value.

T must be a pointer, a bool, a float, an integer or an enum.

Supported operations:

  • .Xchg - stores the operand unmodified. Supports enums, integers and floats.
  • .Add - for integers, twos complement wraparound addition. Also supports Floats.
  • .Sub - for integers, twos complement wraparound subtraction. Also supports Floats.
  • .And - bitwise and
  • .Nand - bitwise nand
  • .Or - bitwise or
  • .Xor - bitwise xor
  • .Max - stores the operand if it is larger. Supports integers and floats.
  • .Min - stores the operand if it is smaller. Supports integers and floats.

See also:

@atomicStore §

@atomicStore(comptime T: type, ptr: *T, value: T, comptime ordering: builtin.AtomicOrder) void

This builtin function atomically stores a value.

T must be a pointer, a bool, a float, an integer or an enum.

See also:

@bitCast §

@bitCast(comptime DestType: type, value: anytype) DestType

Converts a value of one type to another type.

Asserts that @sizeOf(@TypeOf(value)) == @sizeOf(DestType).

Asserts that @typeInfo(DestType) != .Pointer. Use @ptrCast or @intToPtr if you need this.

Can be used for these things for example:

  • Convert f32 to u32 bits
  • Convert i32 to u32 preserving twos complement

Works at compile-time if value is known at compile time. It's a compile error to bitcast a value of undefined layout; this means that, besides the restriction from types which possess dedicated casting builtins (enums, pointers, error sets), bare structs, error unions, slices, optionals, and any other type without a well-defined memory layout, also cannot be used in this operation.

@bitOffsetOf §

@bitOffsetOf(comptime T: type, comptime field_name: []const u8) comptime_int

Returns the bit offset of a field relative to its containing struct.

For non packed structs, this will always be divisible by 8. For packed structs, non-byte-aligned fields will share a byte offset, but they will have different bit offsets.

See also:

@boolToInt §

@boolToInt(value: bool) u1

Converts true to @as(u1, 1) and false to @as(u1, 0).

If the value is known at compile-time, the return type is comptime_int instead of u1.

@bitSizeOf §

@bitSizeOf(comptime T: type) comptime_int

This function returns the number of bits it takes to store T in memory if the type were a field in a packed struct/union. The result is a target-specific compile time constant.

This function measures the size at runtime. For types that are disallowed at runtime, such as comptime_int and type, the result is 0.

See also:

@breakpoint §

@breakpoint()

This function inserts a platform-specific debug trap instruction which causes debuggers to break there.

This function is only valid within function scope.

@mulAdd §

@mulAdd(comptime T: type, a: T, b: T, c: T) T

Fused multiply-add, similar to (a * b) + c, except only rounds once, and is thus more accurate.

Supports Floats and Vectors of floats.

@byteSwap §

@byteSwap(operand: anytype) T

@TypeOf(operand) must be an integer type or an integer vector type with bit count evenly divisible by 8.

operand may be an integer or vector.

Swaps the byte order of the integer. This converts a big endian integer to a little endian integer, and converts a little endian integer to a big endian integer.

Note that for the purposes of memory layout with respect to endianness, the integer type should be related to the number of bytes reported by @sizeOf bytes. This is demonstrated with u24. @sizeOf(u24) == 4, which means that a u24 stored in memory takes 4 bytes, and those 4 bytes are what are swapped on a little vs big endian system. On the other hand, if T is specified to be u24, then only 3 bytes are reversed.

@bitReverse §

@bitReverse(integer: anytype) T

@TypeOf(anytype) accepts any integer type or integer vector type.

Reverses the bitpattern of an integer value, including the sign bit if applicable.

For example 0b10110110 (u8 = 182, i8 = -74) becomes 0b01101101 (u8 = 109, i8 = 109).

@offsetOf §

@offsetOf(comptime T: type, comptime field_name: []const u8) comptime_int

Returns the byte offset of a field relative to its containing struct.

See also:

@call §

@call(options: std.builtin.CallOptions, function: anytype, args: anytype) anytype

Calls a function, in the same way that invoking an expression with parentheses does:

call.zig
const expect = @import("std").testing.expect;

test "noinline function call" {
    try expect(@call(.{}, add, .{3, 9}) == 12);
}

fn add(a: i32, b: i32) i32 {
    return a + b;
}
Shell
$ zig test call.zig
1/1 test.noinline function call... OK
All 1 tests passed.

@call allows more flexibility than normal function call syntax does. The CallOptions struct is reproduced here:

builtin.CallOptions struct
pub const CallOptions = struct {
    modifier: Modifier = .auto,

    /// Only valid when `Modifier` is `Modifier.async_kw`.
    stack: ?[]align(std.Target.stack_align) u8 = null,

    pub const Modifier = enum {
        /// Equivalent to function call syntax.
        auto,

        /// Equivalent to async keyword used with function call syntax.
        async_kw,

        /// Prevents tail call optimization. This guarantees that the return
        /// address will point to the callsite, as opposed to the callsite's
        /// callsite. If the call is otherwise required to be tail-called
        /// or inlined, a compile error is emitted instead.
        never_tail,

        /// Guarantees that the call will not be inlined. If the call is
        /// otherwise required to be inlined, a compile error is emitted instead.
        never_inline,

        /// Asserts that the function call will not suspend. This allows a
        /// non-async function to call an async function.
        no_async,

        /// Guarantees that the call will be generated with tail call optimization.
        /// If this is not possible, a compile error is emitted instead.
        always_tail,

        /// Guarantees that the call will inlined at the callsite.
        /// If this is not possible, a compile error is emitted instead.
        always_inline,

        /// Evaluates the call at compile-time. If the call cannot be completed at
        /// compile-time, a compile error is emitted instead.
        compile_time,
    };
};

@cDefine §

@cDefine(comptime name: []u8, value)

This function can only occur inside @cImport.

This appends #define $name $value to the @cImport temporary buffer.

To define without a value, like this:

#define _GNU_SOURCE

Use the void value, like this:

@cDefine("_GNU_SOURCE", {})

See also:

@cImport §

@cImport(expression) type

This function parses C code and imports the functions, types, variables, and compatible macro definitions into a new empty struct type, and then returns that type.

expression is interpreted at compile time. The builtin functions @cInclude, @cDefine, and @cUndef work within this expression, appending to a temporary buffer which is then parsed as C code.

Usually you should only have one @cImport in your entire application, because it saves the compiler from invoking clang multiple times, and prevents inline functions from being duplicated.

Reasons for having multiple @cImport expressions would be:

  • To avoid a symbol collision, for example if foo.h and bar.h both #define CONNECTION_COUNT
  • To analyze the C code with different preprocessor defines

See also:

@cInclude §

@cInclude(comptime path: []u8)

This function can only occur inside @cImport.

This appends #include <$path>\n to the c_import temporary buffer.

See also:

@clz §

@clz(operand: anytype)

@TypeOf(operand) must be an integer type or an integer vector type.

operand may be an integer or vector.

This function counts the number of most-significant (leading in a big-Endian sense) zeroes in an integer.

If operand is a comptime-known integer, the return type is comptime_int. Otherwise, the return type is an unsigned integer or vector of unsigned integers with the minimum number of bits that can represent the bit count of the integer type.

If operand is zero, @clz returns the bit width of integer type T.

See also:

@cmpxchgStrong §

@cmpxchgStrong(comptime T: type, ptr: *T, expected_value: T, new_value: T, success_order: AtomicOrder, fail_order: AtomicOrder) ?T

This function performs a strong atomic compare exchange operation. It's the equivalent of this code, except atomic:

test.zig
fn cmpxchgStrongButNotAtomic(comptime T: type, ptr: *T, expected_value: T, new_value: T) ?T {
    const old_value = ptr.*;
    if (old_value == expected_value) {
        ptr.* = new_value;
        return null;
    } else {
        return old_value;
    }
}

If you are using cmpxchg in a loop, @cmpxchgWeak is the better choice, because it can be implemented more efficiently in machine instructions.

T must be a pointer, a bool, a float, an integer or an enum.

@typeInfo(@TypeOf(ptr)).Pointer.alignment must be >= @sizeOf(T).

See also:

@cmpxchgWeak §

@cmpxchgWeak(comptime T: type, ptr: *T, expected_value: T, new_value: T, success_order: AtomicOrder, fail_order: AtomicOrder) ?T

This function performs a weak atomic compare exchange operation. It's the equivalent of this code, except atomic:

cmpxchgWeakButNotAtomic
fn cmpxchgWeakButNotAtomic(comptime T: type, ptr: *T, expected_value: T, new_value: T) ?T {
    const old_value = ptr.*;
    if (old_value == expected_value and usuallyTrueButSometimesFalse()) {
        ptr.* = new_value;
        return null;
    } else {
        return old_value;
    }
}

If you are using cmpxchg in a loop, the sporadic failure will be no problem, and cmpxchgWeak is the better choice, because it can be implemented more efficiently in machine instructions. However if you need a stronger guarantee, use @cmpxchgStrong.

T must be a pointer, a bool, a float, an integer or an enum.

@typeInfo(@TypeOf(ptr)).Pointer.alignment must be >= @sizeOf(T).

See also:

@compileError §

@compileError(comptime msg: []u8)

This function, when semantically analyzed, causes a compile error with the message msg.

There are several ways that code avoids being semantically checked, such as using if or switch with compile time constants, and comptime functions.

@compileLog §

@compileLog(args: ...)

This function prints the arguments passed to it at compile-time.

To prevent accidentally leaving compile log statements in a codebase, a compilation error is added to the build, pointing to the compile log statement. This error prevents code from being generated, but does not otherwise interfere with analysis.

This function can be used to do "printf debugging" on compile-time executing code.

test.zig
const print = @import("std").debug.print;

const num1 = blk: {
    var val1: i32 = 99;
    @compileLog("comptime val1 = ", val1);
    val1 = val1 + 1;
    break :blk val1;
};

test "main" {
    @compileLog("comptime in main");

    print("Runtime in main, num1 = {}.\n", .{num1});
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig
docgen_tmp/test.zig:11:5: error: found compile log statement
    @compileLog("comptime in main");
    ^~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
docgen_tmp/test.zig:5:5: note: also here
    @compileLog("comptime val1 = ", val1);
    ^~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Compile Log Output:
@as(*const [16:0]u8, "comptime in main")
@as(*const [16:0]u8, "comptime val1 = "), @as(i32, 99)

If all @compileLog calls are removed or not encountered by analysis, the program compiles successfully and the generated executable prints:

without_compileLog.zig
const print = @import("std").debug.print;

const num1 = blk: {
    var val1: i32 = 99;
    val1 = val1 + 1;
    break :blk val1;
};

test "main" {
    print("Runtime in main, num1 = {}.\n", .{num1});
}
Shell
$ zig test without_compileLog.zig
1/1 test.main... Runtime in main, num1 = 100.
OK
All 1 tests passed.

@ctz §

@ctz(operand: anytype)

@TypeOf(operand) must be an integer type or an integer vector type.

operand may be an integer or vector.

This function counts the number of least-significant (trailing in a big-Endian sense) zeroes in an integer.

If operand is a comptime-known integer, the return type is comptime_int. Otherwise, the return type is an unsigned integer or vector of unsigned integers with the minimum number of bits that can represent the bit count of the integer type.

If operand is zero, @ctz returns the bit width of integer type T.

See also:

@cUndef §

@cUndef(comptime name: []u8)

This function can only occur inside @cImport.

This appends #undef $name to the @cImport temporary buffer.

See also:

@divExact §

@divExact(numerator: T, denominator: T) T

Exact division. Caller guarantees denominator != 0 and @divTrunc(numerator, denominator) * denominator == numerator.

  • @divExact(6, 3) == 2
  • @divExact(a, b) * b == a

For a function that returns a possible error code, use @import("std").math.divExact.

See also:

@divFloor §

@divFloor(numerator: T, denominator: T) T

Floored division. Rounds toward negative infinity. For unsigned integers it is the same as numerator / denominator. Caller guarantees denominator != 0 and !(@typeInfo(T) == .Int and T.is_signed and numerator == std.math.minInt(T) and denominator == -1).

  • @divFloor(-5, 3) == -2
  • (@divFloor(a, b) * b) + @mod(a, b) == a

For a function that returns a possible error code, use @import("std").math.divFloor.

See also:

@divTrunc §

@divTrunc(numerator: T, denominator: T) T

Truncated division. Rounds toward zero. For unsigned integers it is the same as numerator / denominator. Caller guarantees denominator != 0 and !(@typeInfo(T) == .Int and T.is_signed and numerator == std.math.minInt(T) and denominator == -1).

  • @divTrunc(-5, 3) == -1
  • (@divTrunc(a, b) * b) + @rem(a, b) == a

For a function that returns a possible error code, use @import("std").math.divTrunc.

See also:

@embedFile §

@embedFile(comptime path: []const u8) *const [N:0]u8

This function returns a compile time constant pointer to null-terminated, fixed-size array with length equal to the byte count of the file given by path. The contents of the array are the contents of the file. This is equivalent to a string literal with the file contents.

path is absolute or relative to the current file, just like @import.

See also:

@enumToInt §

@enumToInt(enum_or_tagged_union: anytype) anytype

Converts an enumeration value into its integer tag type. When a tagged union is passed, the tag value is used as the enumeration value.

If there is only one possible enum value, the result is a comptime_int known at comptime.

See also:

@errorName §

@errorName(err: anyerror) [:0]const u8

This function returns the string representation of an error. The string representation of error.OutOfMem is "OutOfMem".

If there are no calls to @errorName in an entire application, or all calls have a compile-time known value for err, then no error name table will be generated.

@errorReturnTrace §

@errorReturnTrace() ?*builtin.StackTrace

If the binary is built with error return tracing, and this function is invoked in a function that calls a function with an error or error union return type, returns a stack trace object. Otherwise returns null.

@errorToInt §

@errorToInt(err: anytype) std.meta.Int(.unsigned, @sizeOf(anyerror) * 8)

Supports the following types:

Converts an error to the integer representation of an error.

It is generally recommended to avoid this cast, as the integer representation of an error is not stable across source code changes.

See also:

@errSetCast §

@errSetCast(comptime T: DestType, value: anytype) DestType

Converts an error value from one error set to another error set. Attempting to convert an error which is not in the destination error set results in safety-protected Undefined Behavior.

@export §

@export(declaration, comptime options: std.builtin.ExportOptions) void

Creates a symbol in the output object file.

declaration must be one of two things:

This builtin can be called from a comptime block to conditionally export symbols. When declaration is a function with the C calling convention and options.linkage is Strong, this is equivalent to the export keyword used on a function:

test.zig
comptime {
    @export(internalName, .{ .name = "foo", .linkage = .Strong });
}

fn internalName() callconv(.C) void {}
Shell
$ zig build-obj test.zig

This is equivalent to:

test.zig
export fn foo() void {}
Shell
$ zig build-obj test.zig

Note that even when using export, the @"foo" syntax for identifiers can be used to choose any string for the symbol name:

test.zig
export fn @"A function name that is a complete sentence."() void {}
Shell
$ zig build-obj test.zig

When looking at the resulting object, you can see the symbol is used verbatim:

00000000000001f0 T A function name that is a complete sentence.

See also:

@extern §

@extern(T: type, comptime options: std.builtin.ExternOptions) *T

Creates a reference to an external symbol in the output object file.

See also:

@fence §

@fence(order: AtomicOrder)

The fence function is used to introduce happens-before edges between operations.

AtomicOrder can be found with @import("std").builtin.AtomicOrder.

See also:

@field §

@field(lhs: anytype, comptime field_name: []const u8) (field)

Performs field access by a compile-time string. Works on both fields and declarations.

field_decl_access_by_string.zig
const std = @import("std");

const Point = struct {
    x: u32,
    y: u32,

    pub var z: u32 = 1;
};

test "field access by string" {
    const expect = std.testing.expect;
    var p = Point{ .x = 0, .y = 0 };

    @field(p, "x") = 4;
    @field(p, "y") = @field(p, "x") + 1;

    try expect(@field(p, "x") == 4);
    try expect(@field(p, "y") == 5);
}

test "decl access by string" {
    const expect = std.testing.expect;

    try expect(@field(Point, "z") == 1);

    @field(Point, "z") = 2;
    try expect(@field(Point, "z") == 2);
}
Shell
$ zig test field_decl_access_by_string.zig
1/2 test.field access by string... OK
2/2 test.decl access by string... OK
All 2 tests passed.

@fieldParentPtr §

@fieldParentPtr(comptime ParentType: type, comptime field_name: []const u8,
    field_ptr: *T) *ParentType

Given a pointer to a field, returns the base pointer of a struct.

@floatCast §

@floatCast(comptime DestType: type, value: anytype) DestType

Convert from one float type to another. This cast is safe, but may cause the numeric value to lose precision.

@floatToInt §

@floatToInt(comptime DestType: type, float: anytype) DestType

Converts the integer part of a floating point number to the destination type.

If the integer part of the floating point number cannot fit in the destination type, it invokes safety-checked Undefined Behavior.

See also:

@frame §

@frame() *@Frame(func)

This function returns a pointer to the frame for a given function. This type can be coerced to anyframe->T and to anyframe, where T is the return type of the function in scope.

This function does not mark a suspension point, but it does cause the function in scope to become an async function.

@Frame §

@Frame(func: anytype) type

This function returns the frame type of a function. This works for Async Functions as well as any function without a specific calling convention.

This type is suitable to be used as the return type of async which allows one to, for example, heap-allocate an async function frame:

heap_allocated_frame.zig
const std = @import("std");

test "heap allocated frame" {
    const frame = try std.heap.page_allocator.create(@Frame(func));
    frame.* = async func();
}

fn func() void {
    suspend {}
}
Shell
$ zig test heap_allocated_frame.zig -fstage1
1/1 test "heap allocated frame"... OK
All 1 tests passed.

@frameAddress §

@frameAddress() usize

This function returns the base pointer of the current stack frame.

The implications of this are target-specific and not consistent across all platforms. The frame address may not be available in release mode due to aggressive optimizations.

This function is only valid within function scope.

@frameSize §

@frameSize(func: anytype) usize

This is the same as @sizeOf(@Frame(func)), where func may be runtime-known.

This function is typically used in conjunction with @asyncCall.

@hasDecl §

@hasDecl(comptime Container: type, comptime name: []const u8) bool

Returns whether or not a container has a declaration matching name.

hasDecl.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

const Foo = struct {
    nope: i32,

    pub var blah = "xxx";
    const hi = 1;
};

test "@hasDecl" {
    try expect(@hasDecl(Foo, "blah"));

    // Even though `hi` is private, @hasDecl returns true because this test is
    // in the same file scope as Foo. It would return false if Foo was declared
    // in a different file.
    try expect(@hasDecl(Foo, "hi"));

    // @hasDecl is for declarations; not fields.
    try expect(!@hasDecl(Foo, "nope"));
    try expect(!@hasDecl(Foo, "nope1234"));
}
Shell
$ zig test hasDecl.zig
1/1 test.@hasDecl... OK
All 1 tests passed.

See also:

@hasField §

@hasField(comptime Container: type, comptime name: []const u8) bool

Returns whether the field name of a struct, union, or enum exists.

The result is a compile time constant.

It does not include functions, variables, or constants.

See also:

@import §

@import(comptime path: []u8) type

This function finds a zig file corresponding to path and adds it to the build, if it is not already added.

Zig source files are implicitly structs, with a name equal to the file's basename with the extension truncated. @import returns the struct type corresponding to the file.

Declarations which have the pub keyword may be referenced from a different source file than the one they are declared in.

path can be a relative path or it can be the name of a package. If it is a relative path, it is relative to the file that contains the @import function call.

The following packages are always available:

  • @import("std") - Zig Standard Library
  • @import("builtin") - Target-specific information. The command zig build-exe --show-builtin outputs the source to stdout for reference.
  • @import("root") - Points to the root source file. This is usually src/main.zig but it depends on what file is chosen to be built.

See also:

@intCast §

@intCast(comptime DestType: type, int: anytype) DestType

Converts an integer to another integer while keeping the same numerical value. Attempting to convert a number which is out of range of the destination type results in safety-protected Undefined Behavior.

test.zig
test "integer cast panic" {
    var a: u16 = 0xabcd;
    var b: u8 = @intCast(u8, a);
    _ = b;
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig
1/1 test.integer cast panic... thread 3583363 panic: integer cast truncated bits
docgen_tmp/test.zig:3:17: 0x211586 in test.integer cast panic (test)
    var b: u8 = @intCast(u8, a);
                ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/test_runner.zig:63:28: 0x212d23 in main (test)
        } else test_fn.func();
                           ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:604:22: 0x211eac in posixCallMainAndExit (test)
            root.main();
                     ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:376:5: 0x2119b1 in _start (test)
    @call(.{ .modifier = .never_inline }, posixCallMainAndExit, .{});
    ^
error: the following test command crashed:
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-local-cache/o/886dbde2c2a21074c6c6d3ff9b83336b/test

To truncate the significant bits of a number out of range of the destination type, use @truncate.

If T is comptime_int, then this is semantically equivalent to Type Coercion.

@intToEnum §

@intToEnum(comptime DestType: type, integer: anytype) DestType

Converts an integer into an enum value.

Attempting to convert an integer which represents no value in the chosen enum type invokes safety-checked Undefined Behavior.

See also:

@intToError §

@intToError(value: std.meta.Int(.unsigned, @sizeOf(anyerror) * 8)) anyerror

Converts from the integer representation of an error into The Global Error Set type.

It is generally recommended to avoid this cast, as the integer representation of an error is not stable across source code changes.

Attempting to convert an integer that does not correspond to any error results in safety-protected Undefined Behavior.

See also:

@intToFloat §

@intToFloat(comptime DestType: type, int: anytype) DestType

Converts an integer to the closest floating point representation. To convert the other way, use @floatToInt. This cast is always safe.

@intToPtr §

@intToPtr(comptime DestType: type, address: usize) DestType

Converts an integer to a pointer. To convert the other way, use @ptrToInt. Casting an address of 0 to a destination type which in not optional and does not have the allowzero attribute will result in a Pointer Cast Invalid Null panic when runtime safety checks are enabled.

If the destination pointer type does not allow address zero and address is zero, this invokes safety-checked Undefined Behavior.

@max §

@max(a: T, b: T) T

Returns the maximum value of a and b. This builtin accepts integers, floats, and vectors of either. In the latter case, the operation is performed element wise.

NaNs are handled as follows: if one of the operands of a (pairwise) operation is NaN, the other operand is returned. If both operands are NaN, NaN is returned.

See also:

@memcpy §

@memcpy(noalias dest: [*]u8, noalias source: [*]const u8, byte_count: usize)

This function copies bytes from one region of memory to another. dest and source are both pointers and must not overlap.

This function is a low level intrinsic with no safety mechanisms. Most code should not use this function, instead using something like this:

for (source[0..byte_count]) |b, i| dest[i] = b;

The optimizer is intelligent enough to turn the above snippet into a memcpy.

There is also a standard library function for this:

const mem = @import("std").mem;
mem.copy(u8, dest[0..byte_count], source[0..byte_count]);

@memset §

@memset(dest: [*]u8, c: u8, byte_count: usize)

This function sets a region of memory to c. dest is a pointer.

This function is a low level intrinsic with no safety mechanisms. Most code should not use this function, instead using something like this:

for (dest[0..byte_count]) |*b| b.* = c;

The optimizer is intelligent enough to turn the above snippet into a memset.

There is also a standard library function for this:

const mem = @import("std").mem;
mem.set(u8, dest, c);

@min §

@min(a: T, b: T) T

Returns the minimum value of a and b. This builtin accepts integers, floats, and vectors of either. In the latter case, the operation is performed element wise.

NaNs are handled as follows: if one of the operands of a (pairwise) operation is NaN, the other operand is returned. If both operands are NaN, NaN is returned.

See also:

@wasmMemorySize §

@wasmMemorySize(index: u32) u32

This function returns the size of the Wasm memory identified by index as an unsigned value in units of Wasm pages. Note that each Wasm page is 64KB in size.

This function is a low level intrinsic with no safety mechanisms usually useful for allocator designers targeting Wasm. So unless you are writing a new allocator from scratch, you should use something like @import("std").heap.WasmPageAllocator.

See also:

@wasmMemoryGrow §

@wasmMemoryGrow(index: u32, delta: u32) i32

This function increases the size of the Wasm memory identified by index by delta in units of unsigned number of Wasm pages. Note that each Wasm page is 64KB in size. On success, returns previous memory size; on failure, if the allocation fails, returns -1.

This function is a low level intrinsic with no safety mechanisms usually useful for allocator designers targeting Wasm. So unless you are writing a new allocator from scratch, you should use something like @import("std").heap.WasmPageAllocator.

wasmMemoryGrow.zig
const std = @import("std");
const native_arch = @import("builtin").target.cpu.arch;
const expect = std.testing.expect;

test "@wasmMemoryGrow" {
    if (native_arch != .wasm32) return error.SkipZigTest;

    var prev = @wasmMemorySize(0);
    try expect(prev == @wasmMemoryGrow(0, 1));
    try expect(prev + 1 == @wasmMemorySize(0));
}
Shell
$ zig test wasmMemoryGrow.zig
1/1 test.@wasmMemoryGrow... SKIP
0 passed; 1 skipped; 0 failed.

See also:

@mod §

@mod(numerator: T, denominator: T) T

Modulus division. For unsigned integers this is the same as numerator % denominator. Caller guarantees denominator > 0, otherwise the operation will result in a Remainder Division by Zero when runtime safety checks are enabled.

  • @mod(-5, 3) == 1
  • (@divFloor(a, b) * b) + @mod(a, b) == a

For a function that returns an error code, see @import("std").math.mod.

See also:

@mulWithOverflow §

@mulWithOverflow(comptime T: type, a: T, b: T, result: *T) bool

Performs result.* = a * b. If overflow or underflow occurs, stores the overflowed bits in result and returns true. If no overflow or underflow occurs, returns false.

@panic §

@panic(message: []const u8) noreturn

Invokes the panic handler function. By default the panic handler function calls the public panic function exposed in the root source file, or if there is not one specified, the std.builtin.default_panic function from std/builtin.zig.

Generally it is better to use @import("std").debug.panic. However, @panic can be useful for 2 scenarios:

  • From library code, calling the programmer's panic function if they exposed one in the root source file.
  • When mixing C and Zig code, calling the canonical panic implementation across multiple .o files.

See also:

@popCount §

@popCount(operand: anytype)

@TypeOf(operand) must be an integer type.

operand may be an integer or vector.

Counts the number of bits set in an integer.

If operand is a comptime-known integer, the return type is comptime_int. Otherwise, the return type is an unsigned integer or vector of unsigned integers with the minimum number of bits that can represent the bit count of the integer type.

See also:

@prefetch §

@prefetch(ptr: anytype, comptime options: std.builtin.PrefetchOptions)

This builtin tells the compiler to emit a prefetch instruction if supported by the target CPU. If the target CPU does not support the requested prefetch instruction, this builtin is a no-op. This function has no effect on the behavior of the program, only on the performance characteristics.

The ptr argument may be any pointer type and determines the memory address to prefetch. This function does not dereference the pointer, it is perfectly legal to pass a pointer to invalid memory to this function and no illegal behavior will result.

The options argument is the following struct:

builtin.zig
/// This data structure is used by the Zig language code generation and
/// therefore must be kept in sync with the compiler implementation.
pub const PrefetchOptions = struct {
    /// Whether the prefetch should prepare for a read or a write.
    rw: Rw = .read,
    /// 0 means no temporal locality. That is, the data can be immediately
    /// dropped from the cache after it is accessed.
    ///
    /// 3 means high temporal locality. That is, the data should be kept in
    /// the cache as it is likely to be accessed again soon.
    locality: u2 = 3,
    /// The cache that the prefetch should be preformed on.
    cache: Cache = .data,

    pub const Rw = enum {
        read,
        write,
    };

    pub const Cache = enum {
        instruction,
        data,
    };
};

@ptrCast §

@ptrCast(comptime DestType: type, value: anytype) DestType

Converts a pointer of one type to a pointer of another type.

Optional Pointers are allowed. Casting an optional pointer which is null to a non-optional pointer invokes safety-checked Undefined Behavior.

@ptrToInt §

@ptrToInt(value: anytype) usize

Converts value to a usize which is the address of the pointer. value can be *T or ?*T.

To convert the other way, use @intToPtr

@rem §

@rem(numerator: T, denominator: T) T

Remainder division. For unsigned integers this is the same as numerator % denominator. Caller guarantees denominator > 0, otherwise the operation will result in a Remainder Division by Zero when runtime safety checks are enabled.

  • @rem(-5, 3) == -2
  • (@divTrunc(a, b) * b) + @rem(a, b) == a

For a function that returns an error code, see @import("std").math.rem.

See also:

@returnAddress §

@returnAddress() usize

This function returns the address of the next machine code instruction that will be executed when the current function returns.

The implications of this are target-specific and not consistent across all platforms.

This function is only valid within function scope. If the function gets inlined into a calling function, the returned address will apply to the calling function.

@select §

@select(comptime T: type, pred: @Vector(len, bool), a: @Vector(len, T), b: @Vector(len, T)) @Vector(len, T)

Selects values element-wise from a or b based on pred. If pred[i] is true, the corresponding element in the result will be a[i] and otherwise b[i].

See also:

@setAlignStack §

@setAlignStack(comptime alignment: u29)

Ensures that a function will have a stack alignment of at least alignment bytes.

@setCold §

@setCold(comptime is_cold: bool)

Tells the optimizer that a function is rarely called.

@setEvalBranchQuota §

@setEvalBranchQuota(comptime new_quota: u32)

Changes the maximum number of backwards branches that compile-time code execution can use before giving up and making a compile error.

If the new_quota is smaller than the default quota (1000) or a previously explicitly set quota, it is ignored.

Example:

test.zig
test "foo" {
    comptime {
        var i = 0;
        while (i < 1001) : (i += 1) {}
    }
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig
docgen_tmp/test.zig:4:9: error: evaluation exceeded 1000 backwards branches
        while (i < 1001) : (i += 1) {}
        ^~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
docgen_tmp/test.zig:4:9: note: use @setEvalBranchQuota() to raise the branch limit from 1000

Now we use @setEvalBranchQuota:

setEvalBranchQuota.zig
test "foo" {
    comptime {
        @setEvalBranchQuota(1001);
        var i = 0;
        while (i < 1001) : (i += 1) {}
    }
}
Shell
$ zig test setEvalBranchQuota.zig
1/1 test.foo... OK
All 1 tests passed.

See also:

@setFloatMode §

@setFloatMode(comptime mode: @import("std").builtin.FloatMode)

Sets the floating point mode of the current scope. Possible values are:

test.zig
pub const FloatMode = enum {
    Strict,
    Optimized,
};
  • Strict (default) - Floating point operations follow strict IEEE compliance.
  • Optimized - Floating point operations may do all of the following:
    • Assume the arguments and result are not NaN. Optimizations are required to retain defined behavior over NaNs, but the value of the result is undefined.
    • Assume the arguments and result are not +/-Inf. Optimizations are required to retain defined behavior over +/-Inf, but the value of the result is undefined.
    • Treat the sign of a zero argument or result as insignificant.
    • Use the reciprocal of an argument rather than perform division.
    • Perform floating-point contraction (e.g. fusing a multiply followed by an addition into a fused multiply-add).
    • Perform algebraically equivalent transformations that may change results in floating point (e.g. reassociate).
    This is equivalent to -ffast-math in GCC.

The floating point mode is inherited by child scopes, and can be overridden in any scope. You can set the floating point mode in a struct or module scope by using a comptime block.

See also:

@setRuntimeSafety §

@setRuntimeSafety(comptime safety_on: bool) void

Sets whether runtime safety checks are enabled for the scope that contains the function call.

test.zig
test "@setRuntimeSafety" {
    // The builtin applies to the scope that it is called in. So here, integer overflow
    // will not be caught in ReleaseFast and ReleaseSmall modes:
    // var x: u8 = 255;
    // x += 1; // undefined behavior in ReleaseFast/ReleaseSmall modes.
    {
        // However this block has safety enabled, so safety checks happen here,
        // even in ReleaseFast and ReleaseSmall modes.
        @setRuntimeSafety(true);
        var x: u8 = 255;
        x += 1;

        {
            // The value can be overridden at any scope. So here integer overflow
            // would not be caught in any build mode.
            @setRuntimeSafety(false);
            // var x: u8 = 255;
            // x += 1; // undefined behavior in all build modes.
        }
    }
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig -OReleaseFast
1/1 test.@setRuntimeSafety... thread 3583892 panic: integer overflow
error: the following test command crashed:
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-local-cache/o/6bc307cee0413eb479448fbdd5589a2b/test

Note: it is planned to replace @setRuntimeSafety with @optimizeFor

@shlExact §

@shlExact(value: T, shift_amt: Log2T) T

Performs the left shift operation (<<). For unsigned integers, the result is undefined if any 1 bits are shifted out. For signed integers, the result is undefined if any bits that disagree with the resultant sign bit are shifted out.

The type of shift_amt is an unsigned integer with log2(@typeInfo(T).Int.bits) bits. This is because shift_amt >= @typeInfo(T).Int.bits is undefined behavior.

See also:

@shlWithOverflow §

@shlWithOverflow(comptime T: type, a: T, shift_amt: Log2T, result: *T) bool

Performs result.* = a << b. If overflow or underflow occurs, stores the overflowed bits in result and returns true. If no overflow or underflow occurs, returns false.

The type of shift_amt is an unsigned integer with log2(@typeInfo(T).Int.bits) bits. This is because shift_amt >= @typeInfo(T).Int.bits is undefined behavior.

See also:

@shrExact §

@shrExact(value: T, shift_amt: Log2T) T

Performs the right shift operation (>>). Caller guarantees that the shift will not shift any 1 bits out.

The type of shift_amt is an unsigned integer with log2(@typeInfo(T).Int.bits) bits. This is because shift_amt >= @typeInfo(T).Int.bits is undefined behavior.

See also:

@shuffle §

@shuffle(comptime E: type, a: @Vector(a_len, E), b: @Vector(b_len, E), comptime mask: @Vector(mask_len, i32)) @Vector(mask_len, E)

Constructs a new vector by selecting elements from a and b based on mask.

Each element in mask selects an element from either a or b. Positive numbers select from a starting at 0. Negative values select from b, starting at -1 and going down. It is recommended to use the ~ operator for indexes from b so that both indexes can start from 0 (i.e. ~@as(i32, 0) is -1).

For each element of mask, if it or the selected value from a or b is undefined, then the resulting element is undefined.

a_len and b_len may differ in length. Out-of-bounds element indexes in mask result in compile errors.

If a or b is undefined, it is equivalent to a vector of all undefined with the same length as the other vector. If both vectors are undefined, @shuffle returns a vector with all elements undefined.

E must be an integer, float, pointer, or bool. The mask may be any vector length, and its length determines the result length.

vector_shuffle.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

test "vector @shuffle" {
    const a = @Vector(7, u8){ 'o', 'l', 'h', 'e', 'r', 'z', 'w' };
    const b = @Vector(4, u8){ 'w', 'd', '!', 'x' };

    // To shuffle within a single vector, pass undefined as the second argument.
    // Notice that we can re-order, duplicate, or omit elements of the input vector
    const mask1 = @Vector(5, i32){ 2, 3, 1, 1, 0 };
    const res1: @Vector(5, u8) = @shuffle(u8, a, undefined, mask1);
    try expect(std.mem.eql(u8, &@as([5]u8, res1), "hello"));

    // Combining two vectors
    const mask2 = @Vector(6, i32){ -1, 0, 4, 1, -2, -3 };
    const res2: @Vector(6, u8) = @shuffle(u8, a, b, mask2);
    try expect(std.mem.eql(u8, &@as([6]u8, res2), "world!"));
}
Shell
$ zig test vector_shuffle.zig
1/1 test.vector @shuffle... OK
All 1 tests passed.

See also:

@sizeOf §

@sizeOf(comptime T: type) comptime_int

This function returns the number of bytes it takes to store T in memory. The result is a target-specific compile time constant.

This size may contain padding bytes. If there were two consecutive T in memory, this would be the offset in bytes between element at index 0 and the element at index 1. For integer, consider whether you want to use @sizeOf(T) or @typeInfo(T).Int.bits.

This function measures the size at runtime. For types that are disallowed at runtime, such as comptime_int and type, the result is 0.

See also:

@splat §

@splat(comptime len: u32, scalar: anytype) @Vector(len, @TypeOf(scalar))

Produces a vector of length len where each element is the value scalar:

vector_splat.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

test "vector @splat" {
    const scalar: u32 = 5;
    const result = @splat(4, scalar);
    comptime try expect(@TypeOf(result) == @Vector(4, u32));
    try expect(std.mem.eql(u32, &@as([4]u32, result), &[_]u32{ 5, 5, 5, 5 }));
}
Shell
$ zig test vector_splat.zig
1/1 test.vector @splat... OK
All 1 tests passed.

scalar must be an integer, bool, float, or pointer.

See also:

@reduce §

@reduce(comptime op: std.builtin.ReduceOp, value: anytype) E

Transforms a vector into a scalar value (of type E) by performing a sequential horizontal reduction of its elements using the specified operator op.

Not every operator is available for every vector element type:

  • Every operator is available for integer vectors.
  • .And, .Or, .Xor are additionally available for bool vectors,
  • .Min, .Max, .Add, .Mul are additionally available for floating point vectors,

Note that .Add and .Mul reductions on integral types are wrapping; when applied on floating point types the operation associativity is preserved, unless the float mode is set to Optimized.

vector_reduce.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

test "vector @reduce" {
    const value = @Vector(4, i32){ 1, -1, 1, -1 };
    const result = value > @splat(4, @as(i32, 0));
    // result is { true, false, true, false };
    comptime try expect(@TypeOf(result) == @Vector(4, bool));
    const is_all_true = @reduce(.And, result);
    comptime try expect(@TypeOf(is_all_true) == bool);
    try expect(is_all_true == false);
}
Shell
$ zig test vector_reduce.zig
1/1 test.vector @reduce... OK
All 1 tests passed.

See also:

@src §

@src() std.builtin.SourceLocation

Returns a SourceLocation struct representing the function's name and location in the source code. This must be called in a function.

source_location.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

test "@src" {
    try doTheTest();
}

fn doTheTest() !void {
    const src = @src();

    try expect(src.line == 9);
    try expect(src.column == 17);
    try expect(std.mem.endsWith(u8, src.fn_name, "doTheTest"));
    try expect(std.mem.endsWith(u8, src.file, "source_location.zig"));
}
Shell
$ zig test source_location.zig
1/1 test.@src... OK
All 1 tests passed.

@sqrt §

@sqrt(value: anytype) @TypeOf(value)

Performs the square root of a floating point number. Uses a dedicated hardware instruction when available.

Supports Floats and Vectors of floats, with the caveat that some float operations are not yet implemented for all float types.

@sin §

@sin(value: anytype) @TypeOf(value)

Sine trigonometric function on a floating point number. Uses a dedicated hardware instruction when available.

Supports Floats and Vectors of floats, with the caveat that some float operations are not yet implemented for all float types.

@cos §

@cos(value: anytype) @TypeOf(value)

Cosine trigonometric function on a floating point number. Uses a dedicated hardware instruction when available.

Supports Floats and Vectors of floats, with the caveat that some float operations are not yet implemented for all float types.

@tan §

@tan(value: anytype) @TypeOf(value)

Tangent trigonometric function on a floating point number. Uses a dedicated hardware instruction when available.

Supports Floats and Vectors of floats, with the caveat that some float operations are not yet implemented for all float types.

@exp §

@exp(value: anytype) @TypeOf(value)

Base-e exponential function on a floating point number. Uses a dedicated hardware instruction when available.

Supports Floats and Vectors of floats, with the caveat that some float operations are not yet implemented for all float types.

@exp2 §

@exp2(value: anytype) @TypeOf(value)

Base-2 exponential function on a floating point number. Uses a dedicated hardware instruction when available.

Supports Floats and Vectors of floats, with the caveat that some float operations are not yet implemented for all float types.

@log §

@log(value: anytype) @TypeOf(value)

Returns the natural logarithm of a floating point number. Uses a dedicated hardware instruction when available.

Supports Floats and Vectors of floats, with the caveat that some float operations are not yet implemented for all float types.

@log2 §

@log2(value: anytype) @TypeOf(value)

Returns the logarithm to the base 2 of a floating point number. Uses a dedicated hardware instruction when available.

Supports Floats and Vectors of floats, with the caveat that some float operations are not yet implemented for all float types.

@log10 §

@log10(value: anytype) @TypeOf(value)

Returns the logarithm to the base 10 of a floating point number. Uses a dedicated hardware instruction when available.

Supports Floats and Vectors of floats, with the caveat that some float operations are not yet implemented for all float types.

@fabs §

@fabs(value: anytype) @TypeOf(value)

Returns the absolute value of a floating point number. Uses a dedicated hardware instruction when available.

Supports Floats and Vectors of floats, with the caveat that some float operations are not yet implemented for all float types.

@floor §

@floor(value: anytype) @TypeOf(value)

Returns the largest integral value not greater than the given floating point number. Uses a dedicated hardware instruction when available.

Supports Floats and Vectors of floats, with the caveat that some float operations are not yet implemented for all float types.

@ceil §

@ceil(value: anytype) @TypeOf(value)

Returns the smallest integral value not less than the given floating point number. Uses a dedicated hardware instruction when available.

Supports Floats and Vectors of floats, with the caveat that some float operations are not yet implemented for all float types.

@trunc §

@trunc(value: anytype) @TypeOf(value)

Rounds the given floating point number to an integer, towards zero. Uses a dedicated hardware instruction when available.

Supports Floats and Vectors of floats, with the caveat that some float operations are not yet implemented for all float types.

@round §

@round(value: anytype) @TypeOf(value)

Rounds the given floating point number to an integer, away from zero. Uses a dedicated hardware instruction when available.

Supports Floats and Vectors of floats, with the caveat that some float operations are not yet implemented for all float types.

@subWithOverflow §

@subWithOverflow(comptime T: type, a: T, b: T, result: *T) bool

Performs result.* = a - b. If overflow or underflow occurs, stores the overflowed bits in result and returns true. If no overflow or underflow occurs, returns false.

@tagName §

@tagName(value: anytype) [:0]const u8

Converts an enum value or union value to a string literal representing the name.

If the enum is non-exhaustive and the tag value does not map to a name, it invokes safety-checked Undefined Behavior.

@This §

@This() type

Returns the innermost struct, enum, or union that this function call is inside. This can be useful for an anonymous struct that needs to refer to itself:

this_innermost.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

test "@This()" {
    var items = [_]i32{ 1, 2, 3, 4 };
    const list = List(i32){ .items = items[0..] };
    try expect(list.length() == 4);
}

fn List(comptime T: type) type {
    return struct {
        const Self = @This();

        items: []T,

        fn length(self: Self) usize {
            return self.items.len;
        }
    };
}
Shell
$ zig test this_innermost.zig
1/1 test.@This()... OK
All 1 tests passed.

When @This() is used at file scope, it returns a reference to the struct that corresponds to the current file.

@truncate §

@truncate(comptime T: type, integer: anytype) T

This function truncates bits from an integer type, resulting in a smaller or same-sized integer type.

This function always truncates the significant bits of the integer, regardless of endianness on the target platform.

Calling @truncate on a number out of range of the destination type is well defined and working code:

truncate.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

test "integer truncation" {
    var a: u16 = 0xabcd;
    var b: u8 = @truncate(u8, a);
    try expect(b == 0xcd);
}
Shell
$ zig test truncate.zig
1/1 test.integer truncation... OK
All 1 tests passed.

Use @intCast to convert numbers guaranteed to fit the destination type.

@Type §

@Type(comptime info: std.builtin.Type) type

This function is the inverse of @typeInfo. It reifies type information into a type.

It is available for the following types:

For these types, @Type is not available:

@typeInfo §

@typeInfo(comptime T: type) std.builtin.Type

Provides type reflection.

Type information of structs, unions, enums, and error sets has fields which are guaranteed to be in the same order as appearance in the source file.

Type information of structs, unions, enums, and opaques has declarations, which are also guaranteed to be in the same order as appearance in the source file.

@typeName §

@typeName(T: type) *const [N:0]u8

This function returns the string representation of a type, as an array. It is equivalent to a string literal of the type name. The returned type name is fully qualified with the parent namespace included as part of the type name with a series of dots.

@TypeOf §

@TypeOf(...) type

@TypeOf is a special builtin function that takes any (nonzero) number of expressions as parameters and returns the type of the result, using Peer Type Resolution.

The expressions are evaluated, however they are guaranteed to have no runtime side-effects:

no_runtime_side_effects.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;

test "no runtime side effects" {
    var data: i32 = 0;
    const T = @TypeOf(foo(i32, &data));
    comptime try expect(T == i32);
    try expect(data == 0);
}

fn foo(comptime T: type, ptr: *T) T {
    ptr.* += 1;
    return ptr.*;
}
Shell
$ zig test no_runtime_side_effects.zig
1/1 test.no runtime side effects... OK
All 1 tests passed.

@unionInit §

@unionInit(comptime Union: type, comptime active_field_name: []const u8, init_expr) Union

This is the same thing as union initialization syntax, except that the field name is a comptime-known value rather than an identifier token.

@unionInit forwards its result location to init_expr.

@Vector §

@Vector(len: comptime_int, Element: type) type

Creates Vectors.

Build Mode §

Zig has four build modes:

To add standard build options to a build.zig file:

build.zig
const Builder = @import("std").build.Builder;

pub fn build(b: *Builder) void {
    const exe = b.addExecutable("example", "example.zig");
    exe.setBuildMode(b.standardReleaseOptions());
    b.default_step.dependOn(&exe.step);
}

This causes these options to be available:

-Drelease-safe=[bool]
Optimizations on and safety on
-Drelease-fast=[bool]
Optimizations on and safety off
-Drelease-small=[bool]
Size optimizations on and safety off

Debug §

Shell
$ zig build-exe example.zig
  • Fast compilation speed
  • Safety checks enabled
  • Slow runtime performance
  • Large binary size
  • No reproducible build requirement

ReleaseFast §

Shell
$ zig build-exe example.zig -O ReleaseFast
  • Fast runtime performance
  • Safety checks disabled
  • Slow compilation speed
  • Large binary size
  • Reproducible build

ReleaseSafe §

Shell
$ zig build-exe example.zig -O ReleaseSafe
  • Medium runtime performance
  • Safety checks enabled
  • Slow compilation speed
  • Large binary size
  • Reproducible build

ReleaseSmall §

Shell
$ zig build-exe example.zig -O ReleaseSmall
  • Medium runtime performance
  • Safety checks disabled
  • Slow compilation speed
  • Small binary size
  • Reproducible build

See also:

Single Threaded Builds §

Zig has a compile option --single-threaded which has the following effects:

  • All Thread Local Variables are treated as regular Container Level Variables.
  • The overhead of Async Functions becomes equivalent to function call overhead.
  • The @import("builtin").single_threaded becomes true and therefore various userland APIs which read this variable become more efficient. For example std.Mutex becomes an empty data structure and all of its functions become no-ops.

Undefined Behavior §

Zig has many instances of undefined behavior. If undefined behavior is detected at compile-time, Zig emits a compile error and refuses to continue. Most undefined behavior that cannot be detected at compile-time can be detected at runtime. In these cases, Zig has safety checks. Safety checks can be disabled on a per-block basis with @setRuntimeSafety. The ReleaseFast and ReleaseSmall build modes disable all safety checks (except where overridden by @setRuntimeSafety) in order to facilitate optimizations.

When a safety check fails, Zig crashes with a stack trace, like this:

test.zig
test "safety check" {
    unreachable;
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig
1/1 test.safety check... thread 3584529 panic: reached unreachable code
docgen_tmp/test.zig:2:5: 0x211565 in test.safety check (test)
    unreachable;
    ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/test_runner.zig:63:28: 0x212cf3 in main (test)
        } else test_fn.func();
                           ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:604:22: 0x211e7c in posixCallMainAndExit (test)
            root.main();
                     ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:376:5: 0x211981 in _start (test)
    @call(.{ .modifier = .never_inline }, posixCallMainAndExit, .{});
    ^
error: the following test command crashed:
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-local-cache/o/886dbde2c2a21074c6c6d3ff9b83336b/test

Reaching Unreachable Code §

At compile-time:

test.zig
comptime {
    assert(false);
}
fn assert(ok: bool) void {
    if (!ok) unreachable; // assertion failure
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig
docgen_tmp/test.zig:5:14: error: reached unreachable code
    if (!ok) unreachable; // assertion failure
             ^~~~~~~~~~~
docgen_tmp/test.zig:2:11: note: called from here
    assert(false);
    ~~~~~~^~~~~~~

At runtime:

test.zig
const std = @import("std");

pub fn main() void {
    std.debug.assert(false);
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe test.zig

$ ./test
thread 3584625 panic: reached unreachable code
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/debug.zig:278:14: 0x211a0c in assert (test)
    if (!ok) unreachable; // assertion failure
             ^
docgen_tmp/test.zig:4:21: 0x21015a in main (test)
    std.debug.assert(false);
                    ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:604:22: 0x20f6ec in posixCallMainAndExit (test)
            root.main();
                     ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:376:5: 0x20f1f1 in _start (test)
    @call(.{ .modifier = .never_inline }, posixCallMainAndExit, .{});
    ^
(process terminated by signal)

Index out of Bounds §

At compile-time:

test.zig
comptime {
    const array: [5]u8 = "hello".*;
    const garbage = array[5];
    _ = garbage;
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig
docgen_tmp/test.zig:3:27: error: index 5 outside array of length 5
    const garbage = array[5];
                          ^

At runtime:

test.zig
pub fn main() void {
    var x = foo("hello");
    _ = x;
}

fn foo(x: []const u8) u8 {
    return x[5];
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe test.zig

$ ./test
thread 3584735 panic: index out of bounds: index 5, len 5
docgen_tmp/test.zig:7:13: 0x211cea in foo (test)
    return x[5];
            ^
docgen_tmp/test.zig:2:16: 0x21016b in main (test)
    var x = foo("hello");
               ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:604:22: 0x20f6ec in posixCallMainAndExit (test)
            root.main();
                     ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:376:5: 0x20f1f1 in _start (test)
    @call(.{ .modifier = .never_inline }, posixCallMainAndExit, .{});
    ^
(process terminated by signal)

Cast Negative Number to Unsigned Integer §

At compile-time:

test.zig
comptime {
    var value: i32 = -1;
    const unsigned = @intCast(u32, value);
    _ = unsigned;
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig
docgen_tmp/test.zig:3:36: error: type 'u32' cannot represent integer value '-1'
    const unsigned = @intCast(u32, value);
                                   ^~~~~

At runtime:

test.zig
const std = @import("std");

pub fn main() void {
    var value: i32 = -1;
    var unsigned = @intCast(u32, value);
    std.debug.print("value: {}\n", .{unsigned});
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe test.zig

$ ./test
thread 3584859 panic: attempt to cast negative value to unsigned integer
docgen_tmp/test.zig:5:20: 0x21036d in main (test)
    var unsigned = @intCast(u32, value);
                   ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:604:22: 0x20f8cc in posixCallMainAndExit (test)
            root.main();
                     ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:376:5: 0x20f3d1 in _start (test)
    @call(.{ .modifier = .never_inline }, posixCallMainAndExit, .{});
    ^
(process terminated by signal)

To obtain the maximum value of an unsigned integer, use std.math.maxInt.

Cast Truncates Data §

At compile-time:

test.zig
comptime {
    const spartan_count: u16 = 300;
    const byte = @intCast(u8, spartan_count);
    _ = byte;
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig
docgen_tmp/test.zig:3:31: error: type 'u8' cannot represent integer value '300'
    const byte = @intCast(u8, spartan_count);
                              ^~~~~~~~~~~~~

At runtime:

test.zig
const std = @import("std");

pub fn main() void {
    var spartan_count: u16 = 300;
    const byte = @intCast(u8, spartan_count);
    std.debug.print("value: {}\n", .{byte});
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe test.zig

$ ./test
thread 3584984 panic: integer cast truncated bits
docgen_tmp/test.zig:5:18: 0x210326 in main (test)
    const byte = @intCast(u8, spartan_count);
                 ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:604:22: 0x20f87c in posixCallMainAndExit (test)
            root.main();
                     ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:376:5: 0x20f381 in _start (test)
    @call(.{ .modifier = .never_inline }, posixCallMainAndExit, .{});
    ^
(process terminated by signal)

To truncate bits, use @truncate.

Integer Overflow §

Default Operations §

The following operators can cause integer overflow:

  • + (addition)
  • - (subtraction)
  • - (negation)
  • * (multiplication)
  • / (division)
  • @divTrunc (division)
  • @divFloor (division)
  • @divExact (division)

Example with addition at compile-time:

test.zig
comptime {
    var byte: u8 = 255;
    byte += 1;
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig
docgen_tmp/test.zig:3:10: error: overflow of integer type 'u8' with value '256'
    byte += 1;
    ~~~~~^~~~

At runtime:

test.zig
const std = @import("std");

pub fn main() void {
    var byte: u8 = 255;
    byte += 1;
    std.debug.print("value: {}\n", .{byte});
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe test.zig

$ ./test
thread 3585038 panic: integer overflow
docgen_tmp/test.zig:5:10: 0x210314 in main (test)
    byte += 1;
         ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:604:22: 0x20f86c in posixCallMainAndExit (test)
            root.main();
                     ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:376:5: 0x20f371 in _start (test)
    @call(.{ .modifier = .never_inline }, posixCallMainAndExit, .{});
    ^
(process terminated by signal)

Standard Library Math Functions §

These functions provided by the standard library return possible errors.

  • @import("std").math.add
  • @import("std").math.sub
  • @import("std").math.mul
  • @import("std").math.divTrunc
  • @import("std").math.divFloor
  • @import("std").math.divExact
  • @import("std").math.shl

Example of catching an overflow for addition:

test.zig
const math = @import("std").math;
const print = @import("std").debug.print;
pub fn main() !void {
    var byte: u8 = 255;

    byte = if (math.add(u8, byte, 1)) |result| result else |err| {
        print("unable to add one: {s}\n", .{@errorName(err)});
        return err;
    };

    print("result: {}\n", .{byte});
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe test.zig

$ ./test
unable to add one: Overflow
error: Overflow
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/math.zig:484:5: 0x210131 in add__anon_2905 (test)
    return if (@addWithOverflow(T, a, b, &answer)) error.Overflow else answer;
    ^
docgen_tmp/test.zig:8:9: 0x210024 in main (test)
        return err;
        ^

Builtin Overflow Functions §

These builtins return a bool of whether or not overflow occurred, as well as returning the overflowed bits:

Example of @addWithOverflow:

test.zig
const print = @import("std").debug.print;
pub fn main() void {
    var byte: u8 = 255;

    var result: u8 = undefined;
    if (@addWithOverflow(u8, byte, 10, &result)) {
        print("overflowed result: {}\n", .{result});
    } else {
        print("result: {}\n", .{result});
    }
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe test.zig

$ ./test
overflowed result: 9

Wrapping Operations §

These operations have guaranteed wraparound semantics.

  • +% (wraparound addition)
  • -% (wraparound subtraction)
  • -% (wraparound negation)
  • *% (wraparound multiplication)
wraparound_semantics.zig
const std = @import("std");
const expect = std.testing.expect;
const minInt = std.math.minInt;
const maxInt = std.math.maxInt;

test "wraparound addition and subtraction" {
    const x: i32 = maxInt(i32);
    const min_val = x +% 1;
    try expect(min_val == minInt(i32));
    const max_val = min_val -% 1;
    try expect(max_val == maxInt(i32));
}
Shell
$ zig test wraparound_semantics.zig
1/1 test.wraparound addition and subtraction... OK
All 1 tests passed.

Exact Left Shift Overflow §

At compile-time:

test.zig
comptime {
    const x = @shlExact(@as(u8, 0b01010101), 2);
    _ = x;
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig -fstage1
./docgen_tmp/test.zig:2:15: error: operation caused overflow
    const x = @shlExact(@as(u8, 0b01010101), 2);
              ^

At runtime:

test.zig
const std = @import("std");

pub fn main() void {
    var x: u8 = 0b01010101;
    var y = @shlExact(x, 2);
    std.debug.print("value: {}\n", .{y});
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe test.zig

$ ./test
thread 3585355 panic: left shift overflowed bits
docgen_tmp/test.zig:5:13: 0x21032a in main (test)
    var y = @shlExact(x, 2);
            ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:604:22: 0x20f87c in posixCallMainAndExit (test)
            root.main();
                     ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:376:5: 0x20f381 in _start (test)
    @call(.{ .modifier = .never_inline }, posixCallMainAndExit, .{});
    ^
(process terminated by signal)

Exact Right Shift Overflow §

At compile-time:

test.zig
comptime {
    const x = @shrExact(@as(u8, 0b10101010), 2);
    _ = x;
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig -fstage1
./docgen_tmp/test.zig:2:15: error: exact shift shifted out 1 bits
    const x = @shrExact(@as(u8, 0b10101010), 2);
              ^

At runtime:

test.zig
const std = @import("std");

pub fn main() void {
    var x: u8 = 0b10101010;
    var y = @shrExact(x, 2);
    std.debug.print("value: {}\n", .{y});
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe test.zig

$ ./test
thread 3585494 panic: right shift overflowed bits
docgen_tmp/test.zig:5:13: 0x210321 in main (test)
    var y = @shrExact(x, 2);
            ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:604:22: 0x20f87c in posixCallMainAndExit (test)
            root.main();
                     ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:376:5: 0x20f381 in _start (test)
    @call(.{ .modifier = .never_inline }, posixCallMainAndExit, .{});
    ^
(process terminated by signal)

Division by Zero §

At compile-time:

test.zig
comptime {
    const a: i32 = 1;
    const b: i32 = 0;
    const c = a / b;
    _ = c;
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig
docgen_tmp/test.zig:4:19: error: division by zero here causes undefined behavior
    const c = a / b;
                  ^

At runtime:

test.zig
const std = @import("std");

pub fn main() void {
    var a: u32 = 1;
    var b: u32 = 0;
    var c = a / b;
    std.debug.print("value: {}\n", .{c});
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe test.zig

$ ./test
thread 3585604 panic: division by zero
docgen_tmp/test.zig:6:15: 0x21034a in main (test)
    var c = a / b;
              ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:604:22: 0x20f89c in posixCallMainAndExit (test)
            root.main();
                     ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:376:5: 0x20f3a1 in _start (test)
    @call(.{ .modifier = .never_inline }, posixCallMainAndExit, .{});
    ^
(process terminated by signal)

Remainder Division by Zero §

At compile-time:

test.zig
comptime {
    const a: i32 = 10;
    const b: i32 = 0;
    const c = a % b;
    _ = c;
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig
docgen_tmp/test.zig:4:19: error: division by zero here causes undefined behavior
    const c = a % b;
                  ^

At runtime:

test.zig
const std = @import("std");

pub fn main() void {
    var a: u32 = 10;
    var b: u32 = 0;
    var c = a % b;
    std.debug.print("value: {}\n", .{c});
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe test.zig

$ ./test
thread 3585672 panic: division by zero
docgen_tmp/test.zig:6:15: 0x21034a in main (test)
    var c = a % b;
              ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:604:22: 0x20f89c in posixCallMainAndExit (test)
            root.main();
                     ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:376:5: 0x20f3a1 in _start (test)
    @call(.{ .modifier = .never_inline }, posixCallMainAndExit, .{});
    ^
(process terminated by signal)

Exact Division Remainder §

At compile-time:

test.zig
comptime {
    const a: u32 = 10;
    const b: u32 = 3;
    const c = @divExact(a, b);
    _ = c;
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig -fstage1
./docgen_tmp/test.zig:4:15: error: exact division had a remainder
    const c = @divExact(a, b);
              ^

At runtime:

test.zig
const std = @import("std");

pub fn main() void {
    var a: u32 = 10;
    var b: u32 = 3;
    var c = @divExact(a, b);
    std.debug.print("value: {}\n", .{c});
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe test.zig

$ ./test
thread 3585768 panic: exact division produced remainder
docgen_tmp/test.zig:6:13: 0x2103b9 in main (test)
    var c = @divExact(a, b);
            ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:604:22: 0x20f8cc in posixCallMainAndExit (test)
            root.main();
                     ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:376:5: 0x20f3d1 in _start (test)
    @call(.{ .modifier = .never_inline }, posixCallMainAndExit, .{});
    ^
(process terminated by signal)

Attempt to Unwrap Null §

At compile-time:

test.zig
comptime {
    const optional_number: ?i32 = null;
    const number = optional_number.?;
    _ = number;
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig
docgen_tmp/test.zig:3:35: error: unable to unwrap null
    const number = optional_number.?;
                   ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^~

At runtime:

test.zig
const std = @import("std");

pub fn main() void {
    var optional_number: ?i32 = null;
    var number = optional_number.?;
    std.debug.print("value: {}\n", .{number});
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe test.zig

$ ./test
thread 3585872 panic: attempt to use null value
docgen_tmp/test.zig:5:33: 0x210405 in main (test)
    var number = optional_number.?;
                                ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:604:22: 0x20f95c in posixCallMainAndExit (test)
            root.main();
                     ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:376:5: 0x20f461 in _start (test)
    @call(.{ .modifier = .never_inline }, posixCallMainAndExit, .{});
    ^
(process terminated by signal)

One way to avoid this crash is to test for null instead of assuming non-null, with the if expression:

test.zig
const print = @import("std").debug.print;
pub fn main() void {
    const optional_number: ?i32 = null;

    if (optional_number) |number| {
        print("got number: {}\n", .{number});
    } else {
        print("it's null\n", .{});
    }
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe test.zig

$ ./test
it's null

See also:

Attempt to Unwrap Error §

At compile-time:

test.zig
comptime {
    const number = getNumberOrFail() catch unreachable;
    _ = number;
}

fn getNumberOrFail() !i32 {
    return error.UnableToReturnNumber;
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig
docgen_tmp/test.zig:2:44: error: caught unexpected error 'UnableToReturnNumber'
    const number = getNumberOrFail() catch unreachable;
                                           ^~~~~~~~~~~

At runtime:

test.zig
const std = @import("std");

pub fn main() void {
    const number = getNumberOrFail() catch unreachable;
    std.debug.print("value: {}\n", .{number});
}

fn getNumberOrFail() !i32 {
    return error.UnableToReturnNumber;
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe test.zig

$ ./test
thread 3586023 panic: attempt to unwrap error: UnableToReturnNumber
docgen_tmp/test.zig:9:5: 0x211f7f in getNumberOrFail (test)
    return error.UnableToReturnNumber;
    ^
docgen_tmp/test.zig:4:44: 0x210411 in main (test)
    const number = getNumberOrFail() catch unreachable;
                                           ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:604:22: 0x20f95c in posixCallMainAndExit (test)
            root.main();
                     ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:376:5: 0x20f461 in _start (test)
    @call(.{ .modifier = .never_inline }, posixCallMainAndExit, .{});
    ^
(process terminated by signal)

One way to avoid this crash is to test for an error instead of assuming a successful result, with the if expression:

test.zig
const print = @import("std").debug.print;

pub fn main() void {
    const result = getNumberOrFail();

    if (result) |number| {
        print("got number: {}\n", .{number});
    } else |err| {
        print("got error: {s}\n", .{@errorName(err)});
    }
}

fn getNumberOrFail() !i32 {
    return error.UnableToReturnNumber;
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe test.zig

$ ./test
got error: UnableToReturnNumber

See also:

Invalid Error Code §

At compile-time:

test.zig
comptime {
    const err = error.AnError;
    const number = @errorToInt(err) + 10;
    const invalid_err = @intToError(number);
    _ = invalid_err;
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig
docgen_tmp/test.zig:4:37: error: integer value '11' represents no error
    const invalid_err = @intToError(number);
                                    ^~~~~~

At runtime:

test.zig
const std = @import("std");

pub fn main() void {
    var err = error.AnError;
    var number = @errorToInt(err) + 500;
    var invalid_err = @intToError(number);
    std.debug.print("value: {}\n", .{invalid_err});
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe test.zig

$ ./test
thread 3586118 panic: invalid error code
docgen_tmp/test.zig:6:5: 0x2102ca in main (test)
    var invalid_err = @intToError(number);
    ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:604:22: 0x20f80c in posixCallMainAndExit (test)
            root.main();
                     ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:376:5: 0x20f311 in _start (test)
    @call(.{ .modifier = .never_inline }, posixCallMainAndExit, .{});
    ^
(process terminated by signal)

Invalid Enum Cast §

At compile-time:

test.zig
const Foo = enum {
    a,
    b,
    c,
};
comptime {
    const a: u2 = 3;
    const b = @intToEnum(Foo, a);
    _ = b;
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig
docgen_tmp/test.zig:8:15: error: enum 'test.Foo' has no tag with value '3'
    const b = @intToEnum(Foo, a);
              ^~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
docgen_tmp/test.zig:1:13: note: enum declared here
const Foo = enum {
            ^~~~

At runtime:

test.zig
const std = @import("std");

const Foo = enum {
    a,
    b,
    c,
};

pub fn main() void {
    var a: u2 = 3;
    var b = @intToEnum(Foo, a);
    std.debug.print("value: {s}\n", .{@tagName(b)});
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe test.zig

$ ./test
thread 3586228 panic: invalid enum value
docgen_tmp/test.zig:11:13: 0x210303 in main (test)
    var b = @intToEnum(Foo, a);
            ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:604:22: 0x20f85c in posixCallMainAndExit (test)
            root.main();
                     ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:376:5: 0x20f361 in _start (test)
    @call(.{ .modifier = .never_inline }, posixCallMainAndExit, .{});
    ^
(process terminated by signal)

Invalid Error Set Cast §

At compile-time:

test.zig
const Set1 = error{
    A,
    B,
};
const Set2 = error{
    A,
    C,
};
comptime {
    _ = @errSetCast(Set2, Set1.B);
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig
docgen_tmp/test.zig:10:9: error: 'error.B' not a member of error set 'error{A,C}'
    _ = @errSetCast(Set2, Set1.B);
        ^~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
docgen_tmp/test.zig:5:14: note: error set declared here
const Set2 = error{
             ^~~~~

At runtime:

test.zig
const std = @import("std");

const Set1 = error{
    A,
    B,
};
const Set2 = error{
    A,
    C,
};
pub fn main() void {
    foo(Set1.B);
}
fn foo(set1: Set1) void {
    const x = @errSetCast(Set2, set1);
    std.debug.print("value: {}\n", .{x});
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe test.zig

$ ./test
thread 3586325 panic: invalid error code
docgen_tmp/test.zig:15:15: 0x211e31 in foo (test)
    const x = @errSetCast(Set2, set1);
              ^
docgen_tmp/test.zig:12:13: 0x21029d in main (test)
    foo(Set1.B);
            ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:604:22: 0x20f82c in posixCallMainAndExit (test)
            root.main();
                     ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:376:5: 0x20f331 in _start (test)
    @call(.{ .modifier = .never_inline }, posixCallMainAndExit, .{});
    ^
(process terminated by signal)

Incorrect Pointer Alignment §

At compile-time:

test.zig
comptime {
    const ptr = @intToPtr(*align(1) i32, 0x1);
    const aligned = @alignCast(4, ptr);
    _ = aligned;
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig
docgen_tmp/test.zig:3:35: error: pointer address 0x1 is not aligned to 4 bytes
    const aligned = @alignCast(4, ptr);
                                  ^~~

At runtime:

test.zig
const mem = @import("std").mem;
pub fn main() !void {
    var array align(4) = [_]u32{ 0x11111111, 0x11111111 };
    const bytes = mem.sliceAsBytes(array[0..]);
    if (foo(bytes) != 0x11111111) return error.Wrong;
}
fn foo(bytes: []u8) u32 {
    const slice4 = bytes[1..5];
    const int_slice = mem.bytesAsSlice(u32, @alignCast(4, slice4));
    return int_slice[0];
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe test.zig

$ ./test
thread 3586365 panic: incorrect alignment
docgen_tmp/test.zig:9:39: 0x20fecb in foo (test)
    const int_slice = mem.bytesAsSlice(u32, @alignCast(4, slice4));
                                      ^
docgen_tmp/test.zig:5:12: 0x20fdff in main (test)
    if (foo(bytes) != 0x11111111) return error.Wrong;
           ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:614:37: 0x20f875 in posixCallMainAndExit (test)
            const result = root.main() catch |err| {
                                    ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:376:5: 0x20f331 in _start (test)
    @call(.{ .modifier = .never_inline }, posixCallMainAndExit, .{});
    ^
(process terminated by signal)

Wrong Union Field Access §

At compile-time:

test.zig
comptime {
    var f = Foo{ .int = 42 };
    f.float = 12.34;
}

const Foo = union {
    float: f32,
    int: u32,
};
Shell
$ zig test test.zig
docgen_tmp/test.zig:3:6: error: access of union field 'float' while field 'int' is active
    f.float = 12.34;
    ~^~~~~~
docgen_tmp/test.zig:6:13: note: union declared here
const Foo = union {
            ^~~~~

At runtime:

test.zig
const std = @import("std");

const Foo = union {
    float: f32,
    int: u32,
};

pub fn main() void {
    var f = Foo{ .int = 42 };
    bar(&f);
}

fn bar(f: *Foo) void {
    f.float = 12.34;
    std.debug.print("value: {}\n", .{f.float});
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe test.zig

$ ./test
thread 3586461 panic: access of inactive union field
docgen_tmp/test.zig:14:6: 0x227a38 in bar (test)
    f.float = 12.34;
     ^
docgen_tmp/test.zig:10:8: 0x225eac in main (test)
    bar(&f);
       ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:604:22: 0x22542c in posixCallMainAndExit (test)
            root.main();
                     ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:376:5: 0x224f31 in _start (test)
    @call(.{ .modifier = .never_inline }, posixCallMainAndExit, .{});
    ^
(process terminated by signal)

This safety is not available for extern or packed unions.

To change the active field of a union, assign the entire union, like this:

test.zig
const std = @import("std");

const Foo = union {
    float: f32,
    int: u32,
};

pub fn main() void {
    var f = Foo{ .int = 42 };
    bar(&f);
}

fn bar(f: *Foo) void {
    f.* = Foo{ .float = 12.34 };
    std.debug.print("value: {}\n", .{f.float});
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe test.zig

$ ./test
value: 1.23400001e+01

To change the active field of a union when a meaningful value for the field is not known, use undefined, like this:

test.zig
const std = @import("std");

const Foo = union {
    float: f32,
    int: u32,
};

pub fn main() void {
    var f = Foo{ .int = 42 };
    f = Foo{ .float = undefined };
    bar(&f);
    std.debug.print("value: {}\n", .{f.float});
}

fn bar(f: *Foo) void {
    f.float = 12.34;
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe test.zig

$ ./test
value: 1.23400001e+01

See also:

Out of Bounds Float to Integer Cast §

TODO

Pointer Cast Invalid Null §

This happens when casting a pointer with the address 0 to a pointer which may not have the address 0. For example, C Pointers, Optional Pointers, and allowzero pointers allow address zero, but normal Pointers do not.

At compile-time:

test.zig
comptime {
    const opt_ptr: ?*i32 = null;
    const ptr = @ptrCast(*i32, opt_ptr);
    _ = ptr;
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig -fstage1
./docgen_tmp/test.zig:3:17: error: null pointer casted to type '*i32'
    const ptr = @ptrCast(*i32, opt_ptr);
                ^

At runtime:

test.zig
pub fn main() void {
    var opt_ptr: ?*i32 = null;
    var ptr = @ptrCast(*i32, opt_ptr);
    _ = ptr;
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe test.zig

$ ./test
thread 3586695 panic: cast causes pointer to be null
docgen_tmp/test.zig:3:15: 0x2101c1 in main (test)
    var ptr = @ptrCast(*i32, opt_ptr);
              ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:604:22: 0x20f71c in posixCallMainAndExit (test)
            root.main();
                     ^
/home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-x86_64-linux-musl-baseline/lib/zig/std/start.zig:376:5: 0x20f221 in _start (test)
    @call(.{ .modifier = .never_inline }, posixCallMainAndExit, .{});
    ^
(process terminated by signal)

Memory §

The Zig language performs no memory management on behalf of the programmer. This is why Zig has no runtime, and why Zig code works seamlessly in so many environments, including real-time software, operating system kernels, embedded devices, and low latency servers. As a consequence, Zig programmers must always be able to answer the question:

Where are the bytes?

Like Zig, the C programming language has manual memory management. However, unlike Zig, C has a default allocator - malloc, realloc, and free. When linking against libc, Zig exposes this allocator with std.heap.c_allocator. However, by convention, there is no default allocator in Zig. Instead, functions which need to allocate accept an Allocator parameter. Likewise, data structures such as std.ArrayList accept an Allocator parameter in their initialization functions:

allocator.zig
const std = @import("std");
const Allocator = std.mem.Allocator;
const expect = std.testing.expect;

test "using an allocator" {
    var buffer: [100]u8 = undefined;
    var fba = std.heap.FixedBufferAllocator.init(&buffer);
    const allocator = fba.allocator();
    const result = try concat(allocator, "foo", "bar");
    try expect(std.mem.eql(u8, "foobar", result));
}

fn concat(allocator: Allocator, a: []const u8, b: []const u8) ![]u8 {
    const result = try allocator.alloc(u8, a.len + b.len);
    std.mem.copy(u8, result, a);
    std.mem.copy(u8, result[a.len..], b);
    return result;
}
Shell
$ zig test allocator.zig
1/1 test.using an allocator... OK
All 1 tests passed.

In the above example, 100 bytes of stack memory are used to initialize a FixedBufferAllocator, which is then passed to a function. As a convenience there is a global FixedBufferAllocator available for quick tests at std.testing.allocator, which will also perform basic leak detection.

Zig has a general purpose allocator available to be imported with std.heap.GeneralPurposeAllocator. However, it is still recommended to follow the Choosing an Allocator guide.

Choosing an Allocator §

What allocator to use depends on a number of factors. Here is a flow chart to help you decide:

  1. Are you making a library? In this case, best to accept an Allocator as a parameter and allow your library's users to decide what allocator to use.
  2. Are you linking libc? In this case, std.heap.c_allocator is likely the right choice, at least for your main allocator.
  3. Is the maximum number of bytes that you will need bounded by a number known at comptime? In this case, use std.heap.FixedBufferAllocator or std.heap.ThreadSafeFixedBufferAllocator depending on whether you need thread-safety or not.
  4. Is your program a command line application which runs from start to end without any fundamental cyclical pattern (such as a video game main loop, or a web server request handler), such that it would make sense to free everything at once at the end? In this case, it is recommended to follow this pattern:
    cli_allocation.zig
    const std = @import("std");
    
    pub fn main() !void {
        var arena = std.heap.ArenaAllocator.init(std.heap.page_allocator);
        defer arena.deinit();
    
        const allocator = arena.allocator();
    
        const ptr = try allocator.create(i32);
        std.debug.print("ptr={*}\n", .{ptr});
    }
    Shell
    $ zig build-exe cli_allocation.zig
    
    $ ./cli_allocation
    ptr=i32@7f95ce32e018
    
    When using this kind of allocator, there is no need to free anything manually. Everything gets freed at once with the call to arena.deinit().
  5. Are the allocations part of a cyclical pattern such as a video game main loop, or a web server request handler? If the allocations can all be freed at once, at the end of the cycle, for example once the video game frame has been fully rendered, or the web server request has been served, then std.heap.ArenaAllocator is a great candidate. As demonstrated in the previous bullet point, this allows you to free entire arenas at once. Note also that if an upper bound of memory can be established, then std.heap.FixedBufferAllocator can be used as a further optimization.
  6. Are you writing a test, and you want to make sure error.OutOfMemory is handled correctly? In this case, use std.testing.FailingAllocator.
  7. Are you writing a test? In this case, use std.testing.allocator.
  8. Finally, if none of the above apply, you need a general purpose allocator. Zig's general purpose allocator is available as a function that takes a comptime struct of configuration options and returns a type. Generally, you will set up one std.heap.GeneralPurposeAllocator in your main function, and then pass it or sub-allocators around to various parts of your application.
  9. You can also consider Implementing an Allocator.

Where are the bytes? §

String literals such as "foo" are in the global constant data section. This is why it is an error to pass a string literal to a mutable slice, like this:

test.zig
fn foo(s: []u8) void {
    _ = s;
}

test "string literal to mutable slice" {
    foo("hello");
}
Shell
$ zig test test.zig
docgen_tmp/test.zig:6:9: error: expected type '[]u8', found '*const [5:0]u8'
    foo("hello");
        ^~~~~~~
docgen_tmp/test.zig:6:9: note: cast discards const qualifier
docgen_tmp/test.zig:1:11: note: parameter type declared here
fn foo(s: []u8) void {
          ^~~~

However if you make the slice constant, then it works:

strlit.zig
fn foo(s: []const u8) void {
    _ = s;
}

test "string literal to constant slice" {
    foo("hello");
}
Shell
$ zig test strlit.zig
1/1 test.string literal to constant slice... OK
All 1 tests passed.

Just like string literals, const declarations, when the value is known at comptime, are stored in the global constant data section. Also Compile Time Variables are stored in the global constant data section.

var declarations inside functions are stored in the function's stack frame. Once a function returns, any Pointers to variables in the function's stack frame become invalid references, and dereferencing them becomes unchecked Undefined Behavior.

var declarations at the top level or in struct declarations are stored in the global data section.

The location of memory allocated with allocator.alloc or allocator.create is determined by the allocator's implementation.

TODO: thread local variables

Implementing an Allocator §

Zig programmers can implement their own allocators by fulfilling the Allocator interface. In order to do this one must read carefully the documentation comments in std/mem.zig and then supply a allocFn and a resizeFn.

There are many example allocators to look at for inspiration. Look at std/heap.zig and std.heap.GeneralPurposeAllocator.

Heap Allocation Failure §

Many programming languages choose to handle the possibility of heap allocation failure by unconditionally crashing. By convention, Zig programmers do not consider this to be a satisfactory solution. Instead, error.OutOfMemory represents heap allocation failure, and Zig libraries return this error code whenever heap allocation failure prevented an operation from completing successfully.

Some have argued that because some operating systems such as Linux have memory overcommit enabled by default, it is pointless to handle heap allocation failure. There are many problems with this reasoning:

  • Only some operating systems have an overcommit feature.
    • Linux has it enabled by default, but it is configurable.
    • Windows does not overcommit.
    • Embedded systems do not have overcommit.
    • Hobby operating systems may or may not have overcommit.
  • For real-time systems, not only is there no overcommit, but typically the maximum amount of memory per application is determined ahead of time.
  • When writing a library, one of the main goals is code reuse. By making code handle allocation failure correctly, a library becomes eligible to be reused in more contexts.
  • Although some software has grown to depend on overcommit being enabled, its existence is the source of countless user experience disasters. When a system with overcommit enabled, such as Linux on default settings, comes close to memory exhaustion, the system locks up and becomes unusable. At this point, the OOM Killer selects an application to kill based on heuristics. This non-deterministic decision often results in an important process being killed, and often fails to return the system back to working order.

Recursion §

Recursion is a fundamental tool in modeling software. However it has an often-overlooked problem: unbounded memory allocation.

Recursion is an area of active experimentation in Zig and so the documentation here is not final. You can read a summary of recursion status in the 0.3.0 release notes.

The short summary is that currently recursion works normally as you would expect. Although Zig code is not yet protected from stack overflow, it is planned that a future version of Zig will provide such protection, with some degree of cooperation from Zig code required.

Lifetime and Ownership §

It is the Zig programmer's responsibility to ensure that a pointer is not accessed when the memory pointed to is no longer available. Note that a slice is a form of pointer, in that it references other memory.

In order to prevent bugs, there are some helpful conventions to follow when dealing with pointers. In general, when a function returns a pointer, the documentation for the function should explain who "owns" the pointer. This concept helps the programmer decide when it is appropriate, if ever, to free the pointer.

For example, the function's documentation may say "caller owns the returned memory", in which case the code that calls the function must have a plan for when to free that memory. Probably in this situation, the function will accept an Allocator parameter.

Sometimes the lifetime of a pointer may be more complicated. For example, the std.ArrayList(T).items slice has a lifetime that remains valid until the next time the list is resized, such as by appending new elements.

The API documentation for functions and data structures should take great care to explain the ownership and lifetime semantics of pointers. Ownership determines whose responsibility it is to free the memory referenced by the pointer, and lifetime determines the point at which the memory becomes inaccessible (lest Undefined Behavior occur).

Compile Variables §

Compile variables are accessible by importing the "builtin" package, which the compiler makes available to every Zig source file. It contains compile-time constants such as the current target, endianness, and release mode.

test.zig
const builtin = @import("builtin");
const separator = if (builtin.os.tag == .windows) '\\' else '/';

Example of what is imported with @import("builtin"):

@import("builtin")
const std = @import("std");
/// Zig version. When writing code that supports multiple versions of Zig, prefer
/// feature detection (i.e. with `@hasDecl` or `@hasField`) over version checks.
pub const zig_version = std.SemanticVersion.parse("0.10.1") catch unreachable;
pub const zig_backend = std.builtin.CompilerBackend.stage2_x86_64;

pub const output_mode = std.builtin.OutputMode.Obj;
pub const link_mode = std.builtin.LinkMode.Static;
pub const is_test = false;
pub const single_threaded = false;
pub const abi = std.Target.Abi.gnu;
pub const cpu: std.Target.Cpu = .{
    .arch = .x86_64,
    .model = &std.Target.x86.cpu.znver2,
    .features = std.Target.x86.featureSet(&[_]std.Target.x86.Feature{
        .@"64bit",
        .adx,
        .aes,
        .avx,
        .avx2,
        .bmi,
        .bmi2,
        .branchfusion,
        .clflushopt,
        .clwb,
        .clzero,
        .cmov,
        .crc32,
        .cx16,
        .cx8,
        .f16c,
        .fast_15bytenop,
        .fast_bextr,
        .fast_lzcnt,
        .fast_movbe,
        .fast_scalar_fsqrt,
        .fast_scalar_shift_masks,
        .fast_variable_perlane_shuffle,
        .fast_vector_fsqrt,
        .fma,
        .fsgsbase,
        .fxsr,
        .lzcnt,
        .mmx,
        .movbe,
        .mwaitx,
        .nopl,
        .pclmul,
        .popcnt,
        .prfchw,
        .rdpid,
        .rdpru,
        .rdrnd,
        .rdseed,
        .sahf,
        .sbb_dep_breaking,
        .sha,
        .slow_shld,
        .sse,
        .sse2,
        .sse3,
        .sse4_1,
        .sse4_2,
        .sse4a,
        .ssse3,
        .vzeroupper,
        .wbnoinvd,
        .x87,
        .xsave,
        .xsavec,
        .xsaveopt,
        .xsaves,
    }),
};
pub const os = std.Target.Os{
    .tag = .linux,
    .version_range = .{ .linux = .{
        .range = .{
            .min = .{
                .major = 5,
                .minor = 10,
                .patch = 0,
            },
            .max = .{
                .major = 5,
                .minor = 10,
                .patch = 0,
            },
        },
        .glibc = .{
            .major = 2,
            .minor = 31,
            .patch = 0,
        },
    }},
};
pub const target = std.Target{
    .cpu = cpu,
    .os = os,
    .abi = abi,
    .ofmt = object_format,
};
pub const object_format = std.Target.ObjectFormat.elf;
pub const mode = std.builtin.Mode.Debug;
pub const link_libc = false;
pub const link_libcpp = false;
pub const have_error_return_tracing = true;
pub const valgrind_support = true;
pub const sanitize_thread = false;
pub const position_independent_code = false;
pub const position_independent_executable = false;
pub const strip_debug_info = false;
pub const code_model = std.builtin.CodeModel.default;

See also:

Root Source File §

TODO: explain how root source file finds other files

TODO: pub fn main

TODO: pub fn panic

TODO: if linking with libc you can use export fn main

TODO: order independent top level declarations

TODO: lazy analysis

TODO: using comptime { _ = @import() }

Zig Build System §

The Zig Build System provides a cross-platform, dependency-free way to declare the logic required to build a project. With this system, the logic to build a project is written in a build.zig file, using the Zig Build System API to declare and configure build artifacts and other tasks.

Some examples of tasks the build system can help with:

  • Creating build artifacts by executing the Zig compiler. This includes building Zig source code as well as C and C++ source code.
  • Capturing user-configured options and using those options to configure the build.
  • Surfacing build configuration as comptime values by providing a file that can be imported by Zig code.
  • Caching build artifacts to avoid unnecessarily repeating steps.
  • Executing build artifacts or system-installed tools.
  • Running tests and verifying the output of executing a build artifact matches the expected value.
  • Running zig fmt on a codebase or a subset of it.
  • Custom tasks.

To use the build system, run zig build --help to see a command-line usage help menu. This will include project-specific options that were declared in the build.zig script.

Building an Executable §

This build.zig file is automatically generated by zig init-exe.

build.zig
const Builder = @import("std").build.Builder;

pub fn build(b: *Builder) void {
    // Standard target options allows the person running `zig build` to choose
    // what target to build for. Here we do not override the defaults, which
    // means any target is allowed, and the default is native. Other options
    // for restricting supported target set are available.
    const target = b.standardTargetOptions(.{});

    // Standard release options allow the person running `zig build` to select
    // between Debug, ReleaseSafe, ReleaseFast, and ReleaseSmall.
    const mode = b.standardReleaseOptions();

    const exe = b.addExecutable("example", "src/main.zig");
    exe.setTarget(target);
    exe.setBuildMode(mode);
    exe.install();

    const run_cmd = exe.run();
    run_cmd.step.dependOn(b.getInstallStep());
    if (b.args) |args| {
        run_cmd.addArgs(args);
    }

    const run_step = b.step("run", "Run the app");
    run_step.dependOn(&run_cmd.step);
}

Building a Library §

This build.zig file is automatically generated by zig init-lib.

build.zig
const Builder = @import("std").build.Builder;

pub fn build(b: *Builder) void {
    const mode = b.standardReleaseOptions();
    const lib = b.addStaticLibrary("example", "src/main.zig");
    lib.setBuildMode(mode);
    lib.install();

    var main_tests = b.addTest("src/main.zig");
    main_tests.setBuildMode(mode);

    const test_step = b.step("test", "Run library tests");
    test_step.dependOn(&main_tests.step);
}

Compiling C Source Code §

lib.addCSourceFile("src/lib.c", &[_][]const u8{
    "-Wall",
    "-Wextra",
    "-Werror",
});

C §

Although Zig is independent of C, and, unlike most other languages, does not depend on libc, Zig acknowledges the importance of interacting with existing C code.

There are a few ways that Zig facilitates C interop.

C Type Primitives §

These have guaranteed C ABI compatibility and can be used like any other type.

  • c_short
  • c_ushort
  • c_int
  • c_uint
  • c_long
  • c_ulong
  • c_longlong
  • c_ulonglong
  • c_longdouble

To interop with the C void type, use anyopaque.

See also:

Import from C Header File §

The @cImport builtin function can be used to directly import symbols from .h files:

test.zig
const c = @cImport({
    // See https://github.com/ziglang/zig/issues/515
    @cDefine("_NO_CRT_STDIO_INLINE", "1");
    @cInclude("stdio.h");
});
pub fn main() void {
    _ = c.printf("hello\n");
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe test.zig -lc

$ ./test
hello

The @cImport function takes an expression as a parameter. This expression is evaluated at compile-time and is used to control preprocessor directives and include multiple .h files:

@cImport Expression
const builtin = @import("builtin");

const c = @cImport({
    @cDefine("NDEBUG", builtin.mode == .ReleaseFast);
    if (something) {
        @cDefine("_GNU_SOURCE", {});
    }
    @cInclude("stdlib.h");
    if (something) {
        @cUndef("_GNU_SOURCE");
    }
    @cInclude("soundio.h");
});

See also:

C Translation CLI §

Zig's C translation capability is available as a CLI tool via zig translate-c. It requires a single filename as an argument. It may also take a set of optional flags that are forwarded to clang. It writes the translated file to stdout.

Command line flags §

  • -I: Specify a search directory for include files. May be used multiple times. Equivalent to clang's -I flag. The current directory is not included by default; use -I. to include it.
  • -D: Define a preprocessor macro. Equivalent to clang's -D flag.
  • -cflags [flags] --: Pass arbitrary additional command line flags to clang. Note: the list of flags must end with --
  • -target: The target triple for the translated Zig code. If no target is specified, the current host target will be used.

Using -target and -cflags §

Important! When translating C code with zig translate-c, you must use the same -target triple that you will use when compiling the translated code. In addition, you must ensure that the -cflags used, if any, match the cflags used by code on the target system. Using the incorrect -target or -cflags could result in clang or Zig parse failures, or subtle ABI incompatibilities when linking with C code.

varytarget.h
long FOO = __LONG_MAX__;
Shell
$ zig translate-c -target <em>thumb-freestanding-gnueabihf</em> varytarget.h|grep FOO
pub export var FOO: c_long = <em>2147483647</em>;
$ zig translate-c -target <em>x86_64-macos-gnu</em> varytarget.h|grep FOO
pub export var FOO: c_long = <em>9223372036854775807</em>;
varycflags.h
enum FOO { BAR };
int do_something(enum FOO foo);
Shell
$ zig translate-c varycflags.h|grep -B1 do_something
pub const enum_FOO = <em>c_uint</em>;
pub extern fn do_something(foo: enum_FOO) c_int;
$ zig translate-c <em>-cflags -fshort-enums --</em> varycflags.h|grep -B1 do_something
pub const enum_FOO = <em>u8</em>;
pub extern fn do_something(foo: enum_FOO) c_int;

@cImport vs translate-c §

@cImport and zig translate-c use the same underlying C translation functionality, so on a technical level they are equivalent. In practice, @cImport is useful as a way to quickly and easily access numeric constants, typedefs, and record types without needing any extra setup. If you need to pass cflags to clang, or if you would like to edit the translated code, it is recommended to use zig translate-c and save the results to a file. Common reasons for editing the generated code include: changing anytype parameters in function-like macros to more specific types; changing [*c]T pointers to [*]T or *T pointers for improved type safety; and enabling or disabling runtime safety within specific functions.

See also:

C Translation Caching §

The C translation feature (whether used via zig translate-c or @cImport) integrates with the Zig caching system. Subsequent runs with the same source file, target, and cflags will use the cache instead of repeatedly translating the same code.

To see where the cached files are stored when compiling code that uses @cImport, use the --verbose-cimport flag:

verbose.zig
const c = @cImport({
    @cDefine("_NO_CRT_STDIO_INLINE", "1");
    @cInclude("stdio.h");
});
pub fn main() void {
    _ = c;
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe verbose.zig -lc --verbose-cimport
info(compilation): C import source: /home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-local-cache/o/0547743b81bdeff51a49e52a5e93102c/cimport.h
info(compilation): C import .d file: /home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-local-cache/o/0547743b81bdeff51a49e52a5e93102c/cimport.h.d
info(compilation): C import output: /home/ci/release-0.10.1/out/zig-local-cache/o/70dbdfea0db77295772596037204ea19/cimport.zig

$ ./verbose

cimport.h contains the file to translate (constructed from calls to @cInclude, @cDefine, and @cUndef), cimport.h.d is the list of file dependencies, and cimport.zig contains the translated output.

See also:

Translation failures §

Some C constructs cannot be translated to Zig - for example, goto, structs with bitfields, and token-pasting macros. Zig employs demotion to allow translation to continue in the face of non-translatable entities.

Demotion comes in three varieties - opaque, extern, and @compileError. C structs and unions that cannot be translated correctly will be translated as opaque{}. Functions that contain opaque types or code constructs that cannot be translated will be demoted to extern declarations. Thus, non-translatable types can still be used as pointers, and non-translatable functions can be called so long as the linker is aware of the compiled function.

@compileError is used when top-level definitions (global variables, function prototypes, macros) cannot be translated or demoted. Since Zig uses lazy analysis for top-level declarations, untranslatable entities will not cause a compile error in your code unless you actually use them.

See also:

C Macros §

C Translation makes a best-effort attempt to translate function-like macros into equivalent Zig functions. Since C macros operate at the level of lexical tokens, not all C macros can be translated to Zig. Macros that cannot be translated will be demoted to @compileError. Note that C code which uses macros will be translated without any additional issues (since Zig operates on the pre-processed source with macros expanded). It is merely the macros themselves which may not be translatable to Zig.

Consider the following example:

macro.c
#define MAKELOCAL(NAME, INIT) int NAME = INIT
int foo(void) {
   MAKELOCAL(a, 1);
   MAKELOCAL(b, 2);
   return a + b;
}
Shell
$ zig translate-c macro.c > macro.zig
macro.zig
pub export fn foo() c_int {
    var a: c_int = 1;
    var b: c_int = 2;
    return a + b;
}
pub const MAKELOCAL = @compileError("unable to translate C expr: unexpected token .Equal"); // macro.c:1:9

Note that foo was translated correctly despite using a non-translatable macro. MAKELOCAL was demoted to @compileError since it cannot be expressed as a Zig function; this simply means that you cannot directly use MAKELOCAL from Zig.

See also:

C Pointers §

This type is to be avoided whenever possible. The only valid reason for using a C pointer is in auto-generated code from translating C code.

When importing C header files, it is ambiguous whether pointers should be translated as single-item pointers (*T) or many-item pointers ([*]T). C pointers are a compromise so that Zig code can utilize translated header files directly.

[*c]T - C pointer.

  • Supports all the syntax of the other two pointer types.
  • Coerces to other pointer types, as well as Optional Pointers. When a C pointer is coerced to a non-optional pointer, safety-checked Undefined Behavior occurs if the address is 0.
  • Allows address 0. On non-freestanding targets, dereferencing address 0 is safety-checked Undefined Behavior. Optional C pointers introduce another bit to keep track of null, just like ?usize. Note that creating an optional C pointer is unnecessary as one can use normal Optional Pointers.
  • Supports Type Coercion to and from integers.
  • Supports comparison with integers.
  • Does not support Zig-only pointer attributes such as alignment. Use normal Pointers please!

When a C pointer is pointing to a single struct (not an array), dereference the C pointer to access the struct's fields or member data. That syntax looks like this:

ptr_to_struct.*.struct_member

This is comparable to doing -> in C.

When a C pointer is pointing to an array of structs, the syntax reverts to this:

ptr_to_struct_array[index].struct_member

Exporting a C Library §

One of the primary use cases for Zig is exporting a library with the C ABI for other programming languages to call into. The export keyword in front of functions, variables, and types causes them to be part of the library API:

mathtest.zig
export fn add(a: i32, b: i32) i32 {
    return a + b;
}

To make a static library:

Shell
$ zig build-lib mathtest.zig

To make a shared library:

Shell
$ zig build-lib mathtest.zig -dynamic

Here is an example with the Zig Build System:

test.c
// This header is generated by zig from mathtest.zig
#include "mathtest.h"
#include <stdio.h>

int main(int argc, char **argv) {
    int32_t result = add(42, 1337);
    printf("%d\n", result);
    return 0;
}
build.zig
const Builder = @import("std").build.Builder;

pub fn build(b: *Builder) void {
    const lib = b.addSharedLibrary("mathtest", "mathtest.zig", b.version(1, 0, 0));

    const exe = b.addExecutable("test", null);
    exe.addCSourceFile("test.c", &[_][]const u8{"-std=c99"});
    exe.linkLibrary(lib);
    exe.linkSystemLibrary("c");

    b.default_step.dependOn(&exe.step);

    const run_cmd = exe.run();

    const test_step = b.step("test", "Test the program");
    test_step.dependOn(&run_cmd.step);
}
Shell
$ zig build test
1379

See also:

Mixing Object Files §

You can mix Zig object files with any other object files that respect the C ABI. Example:

base64.zig
const base64 = @import("std").base64;

export fn decode_base_64(
    dest_ptr: [*]u8,
    dest_len: usize,
    source_ptr: [*]const u8,
    source_len: usize,
) usize {
    const src = source_ptr[0..source_len];
    const dest = dest_ptr[0..dest_len];
    const base64_decoder = base64.standard.Decoder;
    const decoded_size = base64_decoder.calcSizeForSlice(src) catch unreachable;
    base64_decoder.decode(dest[0..decoded_size], src) catch unreachable;
    return decoded_size;
}
test.c
// This header is generated by zig from base64.zig
#include "base64.h"

#include <string.h>
#include <stdio.h>

int main(int argc, char **argv) {
    const char *encoded = "YWxsIHlvdXIgYmFzZSBhcmUgYmVsb25nIHRvIHVz";
    char buf[200];

    size_t len = decode_base_64(buf, 200, encoded, strlen(encoded));
    buf[len] = 0;
    puts(buf);

    return 0;
}
build.zig
const Builder = @import("std").build.Builder;

pub fn build(b: *Builder) void {
    const obj = b.addObject("base64", "base64.zig");

    const exe = b.addExecutable("test", null);
    exe.addCSourceFile("test.c", &[_][]const u8{"-std=c99"});
    exe.addObject(obj);
    exe.linkSystemLibrary("c");
    exe.install();
}
Shell
$ zig build
$ ./zig-out/bin/test
all your base are belong to us

See also:

WebAssembly §

Zig supports building for WebAssembly out of the box.

Freestanding §

For host environments like the web browser and nodejs, build as a dynamic library using the freestanding OS target. Here's an example of running Zig code compiled to WebAssembly with nodejs.

math.zig
extern fn print(i32) void;

export fn add(a: i32, b: i32) void {
    print(a + b);
}
Shell
$ zig build-lib math.zig -target wasm32-freestanding -dynamic
test.js
const fs = require('fs');
const source = fs.readFileSync("./math.wasm");
const typedArray = new Uint8Array(source);

WebAssembly.instantiate(typedArray, {
  env: {
    print: (result) => { console.log(`The result is ${result}`); }
  }}).then(result => {
  const add = result.instance.exports.add;
  add(1, 2);
});
Shell
$ node test.js
The result is 3

WASI §

Zig's support for WebAssembly System Interface (WASI) is under active development. Example of using the standard library and reading command line arguments:

args.zig
const std = @import("std");

pub fn main() !void {
    var general_purpose_allocator = std.heap.GeneralPurposeAllocator(.{}){};
    const gpa = general_purpose_allocator.allocator();
    const args = try std.process.argsAlloc(gpa);
    defer std.process.argsFree(gpa, args);

    for (args) |arg, i| {
        std.debug.print("{}: {s}\n", .{ i, arg });
    }
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe args.zig -target wasm32-wasi
Shell
$ wasmtime args.wasm 123 hello
0: args.wasm
1: 123
2: hello

A more interesting example would be extracting the list of preopens from the runtime. This is now supported in the standard library via std.fs.wasi.PreopenList:

preopens.zig
const std = @import("std");
const PreopenList = std.fs.wasi.PreopenList;

pub fn main() !void {
    var general_purpose_allocator = std.heap.GeneralPurposeAllocator(.{}){};
    const gpa = general_purpose_allocator.allocator();

    var preopens = PreopenList.init(gpa);
    defer preopens.deinit();

    try preopens.populate(null);

    for (preopens.asSlice()) |preopen, i| {
        std.debug.print("{}: {}\n", .{ i, preopen });
    }
}
Shell
$ zig build-exe preopens.zig -target wasm32-wasi
Shell
$ wasmtime --dir=. preopens.wasm
0: Preopen{ .fd = 3, .type = PreopenType{ .Dir = '.' } }

Targets §

Zig supports generating code for all targets that LLVM supports. Here is what it looks like to execute zig targets on a Linux x86_64 computer:

Shell
$ zig targets
Architectures:
  arm
    v8_4a
    v8_3a
    v8_2a
    v8_1a
    v8
    v8r
    v8m_baseline
    v8m_mainline
    v7
    v7em
    v7m
    v7s
    v7k
    v7ve
    v6
    v6m
    v6k
    v6t2
    v5
    v5te
    v4t
  armeb
    v8_4a
    v8_3a
    v8_2a
    v8_1a
    v8
    v8r
    v8m_baseline
    v8m_mainline
    v7
    v7em
    v7m
    v7s
    v7k
    v7ve
    v6
    v6m
    v6k
    v6t2
    v5
    v5te
    v4t
  aarch64
    v8_4a
    v8_3a
    v8_2a
    v8_1a
    v8
    v8r
    v8m_baseline
    v8m_mainline
  aarch64_be
    v8_4a
    v8_3a
    v8_2a
    v8_1a
    v8
    v8r
    v8m_baseline
    v8m_mainline
  avr
  bpfel
  bpfeb
  hexagon
  mips
  mipsel
  mips64
  mips64el
  msp430
  powerpc
  powerpc64
  powerpc64le
  r600
  amdgcn
  riscv32
  riscv64
  sparc
  sparc64
  sparcel
  s390x
  thumb
    v8_4a
    v8_3a
    v8_2a
    v8_1a
    v8
    v8r
    v8m_baseline
    v8m_mainline
    v7
    v7em
    v7m
    v7s
    v7k
    v7ve
    v6
    v6m
    v6k
    v6t2
    v5
    v5te
    v4t
  thumbeb
    v8_4a
    v8_3a
    v8_2a
    v8_1a
    v8
    v8r
    v8m_baseline
    v8m_mainline
    v7
    v7em
    v7m
    v7s
    v7k
    v7ve
    v6
    v6m
    v6k
    v6t2
    v5
    v5te
    v4t
  i386
  x86_64 (native)
  xcore
  nvptx
  nvptx64
  lanai
  wasm32
  wasm64

Operating Systems:
  freestanding
  ananas
  cloudabi
  dragonfly
  freebsd
  fuchsia
  ios
  kfreebsd
  linux (native)
  lv2
  macos
  netbsd
  openbsd
  solaris
  windows
  haiku
  minix
  rtems
  nacl
  cnk
  aix
  cuda
  nvcl
  amdhsa
  ps4
  elfiamcu
  tvos
  wasi
  watchos
  mesa3d
  contiki
  amdpal
  zen
  uefi

C ABIs:
  none
  gnu (native)
  gnuabin32
  gnuabi64
  gnueabi
  gnueabihf
  gnux32
  code16
  eabi
  eabihf
  android
  musl
  musleabi
  musleabihf
  msvc
  itanium
  cygnus
  coreclr
  simulator

Available libcs:
  aarch64_be-linux-gnu
  aarch64_be-linux-musl
  aarch64-linux-gnu
  aarch64-linux-musleabi
  armeb-linux-gnueabi
  armeb-linux-gnueabihf
  armeb-linux-musleabi
  armeb-linux-musleabihf
  arm-linux-gnueabi
  arm-linux-gnueabihf
  arm-linux-musleabi
  arm-linux-musleabihf
  i386-linux-gnu
  i386-linux-musl
  mips64el-linux-gnuabi64
  mips64el-linux-gnuabin32
  mips64el-linux-musl
  mips64-linux-gnuabi64
  mips64-linux-gnuabin32
  mips64-linux-musl
  mipsel-linux-gnu
  mipsel-linux-musl
  mips-linux-gnu
  mips-linux-musl
  nios2-linux-gnu
  powerpc64le-linux-gnu
  powerpc64le-linux-musl
  powerpc64-linux-gnu
  powerpc64-linux-musl
  powerpc-linux-gnu
  powerpc-linux-musl
  riscv32-linux-musl
  riscv64-linux-gnu
  riscv64-linux-musl
  s390x-linux-gnu
  s390x-linux-musl
  sparc-linux-gnu
  sparc64-linux-gnu
  wasm32-freestanding-musl
  wasm32-wasi-musl
  x86_64-linux-gnu
  x86_64-linux-gnux32
  x86_64-linux-musl

The Zig Standard Library (@import("std")) has architecture, environment, and operating system abstractions, and thus takes additional work to support more platforms. Not all standard library code requires operating system abstractions, however, so things such as generic data structures work on all above platforms.

The current list of targets supported by the Zig Standard Library is:

  • Linux x86_64
  • Windows x86_64
  • macOS x86_64

Style Guide §

These coding conventions are not enforced by the compiler, but they are shipped in this documentation along with the compiler in order to provide a point of reference, should anyone wish to point to an authority on agreed upon Zig coding style.

Whitespace §

  • 4 space indentation
  • Open braces on same line, unless you need to wrap.
  • If a list of things is longer than 2, put each item on its own line and exercise the ability to put an extra comma at the end.
  • Line length: aim for 100; use common sense.

Names §

Roughly speaking: camelCaseFunctionName, TitleCaseTypeName, snake_case_variable_name. More precisely:

  • If x is a type then x should be TitleCase, unless it is a struct with 0 fields and is never meant to be instantiated, in which case it is considered to be a "namespace" and uses snake_case.
  • If x is callable, and x's return type is type, then x should be TitleCase.
  • If x is otherwise callable, then x should be camelCase.
  • Otherwise, x should be snake_case.

Acronyms, initialisms, proper nouns, or any other word that has capitalization rules in written English are subject to naming conventions just like any other word. Even acronyms that are only 2 letters long are subject to these conventions.

File names fall into two categories: types and namespaces. If the file (implicitly a struct) has top level fields, it should be named like any other struct with fields using TitleCase. Otherwise, it should use snake_case. Directory names should be snake_case.

These are general rules of thumb; if it makes sense to do something different, do what makes sense. For example, if there is an established convention such as ENOENT, follow the established convention.

Examples §

style_example.zig
const namespace_name = @import("dir_name/file_name.zig");
const TypeName = @import("dir_name/TypeName.zig");
var global_var: i32 = undefined;
const const_name = 42;
const primitive_type_alias = f32;
const string_alias = []u8;

const StructName = struct {
    field: i32,
};
const StructAlias = StructName;

fn functionName(param_name: TypeName) void {
    var functionPointer = functionName;
    functionPointer();
    functionPointer = otherFunction;
    functionPointer();
}
const functionAlias = functionName;

fn ListTemplateFunction(comptime ChildType: type, comptime fixed_size: usize) type {
    return List(ChildType, fixed_size);
}

fn ShortList(comptime T: type, comptime n: usize) type {
    return struct {
        field_name: [n]T,
        fn methodName() void {}
    };
}

// The word XML loses its casing when used in Zig identifiers.
const xml_document =
    \\<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
    \\<document>
    \\</document>
;
const XmlParser = struct {
    field: i32,
};

// The initials BE (Big Endian) are just another word in Zig identifier names.
fn readU32Be() u32 {}

See the Zig Standard Library for more examples.

Doc Comment Guidance §

  • Omit any information that is redundant based on the name of the thing being documented.
  • Duplicating information onto multiple similar functions is encouraged because it helps IDEs and other tools provide better help text.
  • Use the word assume to indicate invariants that cause Undefined Behavior when violated.
  • Use the word assert to indicate invariants that cause safety-checked Undefined Behavior when violated.

Source Encoding §

Zig source code is encoded in UTF-8. An invalid UTF-8 byte sequence results in a compile error.

Throughout all zig source code (including in comments), some code points are never allowed:

  • Ascii control characters, except for U+000a (LF), U+000d (CR), and U+0009 (HT): U+0000 - U+0008, U+000b - U+000c, U+000e - U+0001f, U+007f.
  • Non-Ascii Unicode line endings: U+0085 (NEL), U+2028 (LS), U+2029 (PS).

LF (byte value 0x0a, code point U+000a, '\n') is the line terminator in Zig source code. This byte value terminates every line of zig source code except the last line of the file. It is recommended that non-empty source files end with an empty line, which means the last byte would be 0x0a (LF).

Each LF may be immediately preceded by a single CR (byte value 0x0d, code point U+000d, '\r') to form a Windows style line ending, but this is discouraged. A CR in any other context is not allowed.

HT hard tabs (byte value 0x09, code point U+0009, '\t') are interchangeable with SP spaces (byte value 0x20, code point U+0020, ' ') as a token separator, but use of hard tabs is discouraged. See Grammar.

Note that running zig fmt on a source file will implement all recommendations mentioned here. Note also that the stage1 compiler does not yet support CR or HT control characters.

Note that a tool reading Zig source code can make assumptions if the source code is assumed to be correct Zig code. For example, when identifying the ends of lines, a tool can use a naive search such as /\n/, or an advanced search such as /\r\n?|[\n\u0085\u2028\u2029]/, and in either case line endings will be correctly identified. For another example, when identifying the whitespace before the first token on a line, a tool can either use a naive search such as /[ \t]/, or an advanced search such as /\s/, and in either case whitespace will be correctly identified.

Keyword Reference §

Keywords
Keyword Description
align
align can be used to specify the alignment of a pointer. It can also be used after a variable or function declaration to specify the alignment of pointers to that variable or function.
allowzero
The pointer attribute allowzero allows a pointer to have address zero.
and
The boolean operator and.
anyframe
anyframe can be used as a type for variables which hold pointers to function frames.
anytype
Function parameters can be declared with anytype in place of the type. The type will be inferred where the function is called.
asm
asm begins an inline assembly expression. This allows for directly controlling the machine code generated on compilation.
async
async can be used before a function call to get a pointer to the function's frame when it suspends.
await
await can be used to suspend the current function until the frame provided after the await completes. await copies the value returned from the target function's frame to the caller.
break
break can be used with a block label to return a value from the block. It can also be used to exit a loop before iteration completes naturally.
catch
catch can be used to evaluate an expression if the expression before it evaluates to an error. The expression after the catch can optionally capture the error value.
comptime
comptime before a declaration can be used to label variables or function parameters as known at compile time. It can also be used to guarantee an expression is run at compile time.
const
const declares a variable that can not be modified. Used as a pointer attribute, it denotes the value referenced by the pointer cannot be modified.
continue
continue can be used in a loop to jump back to the beginning of the loop.
defer
defer will execute an expression when control flow leaves the current block.
else
else can be used to provide an alternate branch for if, switch, while, and for expressions.
  • If used after an if expression, the else branch will be executed if the test value returns false, null, or an error.
  • If used within a switch expression, the else branch will be executed if the test value matches no other cases.
  • If used after a loop expression, the else branch will be executed if the loop finishes without breaking.
  • See also if, switch, while, for
enum
enum defines an enum type.
errdefer
errdefer will execute an expression when control flow leaves the current block if the function returns an error, the errdefer expression can capture the unwrapped value.
error
error defines an error type.
export
export makes a function or variable externally visible in the generated object file. Exported functions default to the C calling convention.
extern
extern can be used to declare a function or variable that will be resolved at link time, when linking statically or at runtime, when linking dynamically.
fn
fn declares a function.
for
A for expression can be used to iterate over the elements of a slice, array, or tuple.
if
An if expression can test boolean expressions, optional values, or error unions. For optional values or error unions, the if expression can capture the unwrapped value.
  • See also if
inline
inline can be used to label a loop expression such that it will be unrolled at compile time. It can also be used to force a function to be inlined at all call sites.
noalias
The noalias keyword.
  • TODO add documentation for noalias
nosuspend
The nosuspend keyword can be used in front of a block, statement or expression, to mark a scope where no suspension points are reached. In particular, inside a nosuspend scope:
  • Using the suspend keyword results in a compile error.
  • Using await on a function frame which hasn't completed yet results in safety-checked Undefined Behavior.
  • Calling an async function may result in safety-checked Undefined Behavior, because it's equivalent to await async some_async_fn(), which contains an await.
Code inside a nosuspend scope does not cause the enclosing function to become an async function.
or
The boolean operator or.
orelse
orelse can be used to evaluate an expression if the expression before it evaluates to null.
packed
The packed keyword before a struct definition changes the struct's in-memory layout to the guaranteed packed layout.
pub
The pub in front of a top level declaration makes the declaration available to reference from a different file than the one it is declared in.
resume
resume will continue execution of a function frame after the point the function was suspended.
return
return exits a function with a value.
linksection
The linksection keyword.
  • TODO add documentation for linksection
struct
struct defines a struct.
suspend
suspend will cause control flow to return to the call site or resumer of the function. suspend can also be used before a block within a function, to allow the function access to its frame before control flow returns to the call site.
switch
A switch expression can be used to test values of a common type. switch cases can capture field values of a Tagged union.
test
The test keyword can be used to denote a top-level block of code used to make sure behavior meets expectations.
threadlocal
threadlocal can be used to specify a variable as thread-local.
try
try evaluates an error union expression. If it is an error, it returns from the current function with the same error. Otherwise, the expression results in the unwrapped value.
union
union defines a union.
unreachable
unreachable can be used to assert that control flow will never happen upon a particular location. Depending on the build mode, unreachable may emit a panic.
  • Emits a panic in Debug and ReleaseSafe mode, or when using zig test.
  • Does not emit a panic in ReleaseFast mode, unless zig test is being used.
  • See also unreachable
usingnamespace
usingnamespace is a top-level declaration that imports all the public declarations of the operand, which must be a struct, union, or enum, into the current scope.
var
var declares a variable that may be modified.
volatile
volatile can be used to denote loads or stores of a pointer have side effects. It can also modify an inline assembly expression to denote it has side effects.
while
A while expression can be used to repeatedly test a boolean, optional, or error union expression, and cease looping when that expression evaluates to false, null, or an error, respectively.

Appendix §

Containers §

A container in Zig is any syntactical construct that acts as a namespace to hold variable and function declarations. Containers are also type definitions which can be instantiated. Structs, enums, unions, opaques, and even Zig source files themselves are containers.

Although containers (except Zig source files) use curly braces to surround their definition, they should not be confused with blocks or functions. Containers do not contain statements.

Grammar §

grammar.y
Root <- skip container_doc_comment? ContainerMembers eof

# *** Top level ***
ContainerMembers <- ContainerDeclarations (ContainerField COMMA)* (ContainerField / ContainerDeclarations)

ContainerDeclarations
    <- TestDecl ContainerDeclarations
     / TopLevelComptime ContainerDeclarations
     / doc_comment? KEYWORD_pub? TopLevelDecl ContainerDeclarations
     /

TestDecl <- doc_comment? KEYWORD_test STRINGLITERALSINGLE? Block

TopLevelComptime <- doc_comment? KEYWORD_comptime BlockExpr

TopLevelDecl
    <- (KEYWORD_export / KEYWORD_extern STRINGLITERALSINGLE? / (KEYWORD_inline / KEYWORD_noinline))? FnProto (SEMICOLON / Block)
     / (KEYWORD_export / KEYWORD_extern STRINGLITERALSINGLE?)? KEYWORD_threadlocal? VarDecl
     / KEYWORD_usingnamespace Expr SEMICOLON

FnProto <- KEYWORD_fn IDENTIFIER? LPAREN ParamDeclList RPAREN ByteAlign? LinkSection? CallConv? EXCLAMATIONMARK? TypeExpr

VarDecl <- (KEYWORD_const / KEYWORD_var) IDENTIFIER (COLON TypeExpr)? ByteAlign? LinkSection? (EQUAL Expr)? SEMICOLON

ContainerField <- doc_comment? KEYWORD_comptime? IDENTIFIER (COLON (KEYWORD_anytype / TypeExpr) ByteAlign?)? (EQUAL Expr)?

# *** Block Level ***
Statement
    <- KEYWORD_comptime? VarDecl
     / KEYWORD_comptime BlockExprStatement
     / KEYWORD_nosuspend BlockExprStatement
     / KEYWORD_suspend BlockExprStatement
     / KEYWORD_defer BlockExprStatement
     / KEYWORD_errdefer Payload? BlockExprStatement
     / IfStatement
     / LabeledStatement
     / SwitchExpr
     / AssignExpr SEMICOLON

IfStatement
    <- IfPrefix BlockExpr ( KEYWORD_else Payload? Statement )?
     / IfPrefix AssignExpr ( SEMICOLON / KEYWORD_else Payload? Statement )

LabeledStatement <- BlockLabel? (Block / LoopStatement)

LoopStatement <- KEYWORD_inline? (ForStatement / WhileStatement)

ForStatement
    <- ForPrefix BlockExpr ( KEYWORD_else Statement )?
     / ForPrefix AssignExpr ( SEMICOLON / KEYWORD_else Statement )

WhileStatement
    <- WhilePrefix BlockExpr ( KEYWORD_else Payload? Statement )?
     / WhilePrefix AssignExpr ( SEMICOLON / KEYWORD_else Payload? Statement )

BlockExprStatement
    <- BlockExpr
     / AssignExpr SEMICOLON

BlockExpr <- BlockLabel? Block

# *** Expression Level ***
AssignExpr <- Expr (AssignOp Expr)?

Expr <- BoolOrExpr

BoolOrExpr <- BoolAndExpr (KEYWORD_or BoolAndExpr)*

BoolAndExpr <- CompareExpr (KEYWORD_and CompareExpr)*

CompareExpr <- BitwiseExpr (CompareOp BitwiseExpr)?

BitwiseExpr <- BitShiftExpr (BitwiseOp BitShiftExpr)*

BitShiftExpr <- AdditionExpr (BitShiftOp AdditionExpr)*

AdditionExpr <- MultiplyExpr (AdditionOp MultiplyExpr)*

MultiplyExpr <- PrefixExpr (MultiplyOp PrefixExpr)*

PrefixExpr <- PrefixOp* PrimaryExpr

PrimaryExpr
    <- AsmExpr
     / IfExpr
     / KEYWORD_break BreakLabel? Expr?
     / KEYWORD_comptime Expr
     / KEYWORD_nosuspend Expr
     / KEYWORD_continue BreakLabel?
     / KEYWORD_resume Expr
     / KEYWORD_return Expr?
     / BlockLabel? LoopExpr
     / Block
     / CurlySuffixExpr

IfExpr <- IfPrefix Expr (KEYWORD_else Payload? Expr)?

Block <- LBRACE Statement* RBRACE

LoopExpr <- KEYWORD_inline? (ForExpr / WhileExpr)

ForExpr <- ForPrefix Expr (KEYWORD_else Expr)?

WhileExpr <- WhilePrefix Expr (KEYWORD_else Payload? Expr)?

CurlySuffixExpr <- TypeExpr InitList?

InitList
    <- LBRACE FieldInit (COMMA FieldInit)* COMMA? RBRACE
     / LBRACE Expr (COMMA Expr)* COMMA? RBRACE
     / LBRACE RBRACE

TypeExpr <- PrefixTypeOp* ErrorUnionExpr

ErrorUnionExpr <- SuffixExpr (EXCLAMATIONMARK TypeExpr)?

SuffixExpr
    <- KEYWORD_async PrimaryTypeExpr SuffixOp* FnCallArguments
     / PrimaryTypeExpr (SuffixOp / FnCallArguments)*

PrimaryTypeExpr
    <- BUILTINIDENTIFIER FnCallArguments
     / CHAR_LITERAL
     / ContainerDecl
     / DOT IDENTIFIER
     / DOT InitList
     / ErrorSetDecl
     / FLOAT
     / FnProto
     / GroupedExpr
     / LabeledTypeExpr
     / IDENTIFIER
     / IfTypeExpr
     / INTEGER
     / KEYWORD_comptime TypeExpr
     / KEYWORD_error DOT IDENTIFIER
     / KEYWORD_anyframe
     / KEYWORD_unreachable
     / STRINGLITERAL
     / SwitchExpr

ContainerDecl <- (KEYWORD_extern / KEYWORD_packed)? ContainerDeclAuto

ErrorSetDecl <- KEYWORD_error LBRACE IdentifierList RBRACE

GroupedExpr <- LPAREN Expr RPAREN

IfTypeExpr <- IfPrefix TypeExpr (KEYWORD_else Payload? TypeExpr)?

LabeledTypeExpr
    <- BlockLabel Block
     / BlockLabel? LoopTypeExpr

LoopTypeExpr <- KEYWORD_inline? (ForTypeExpr / WhileTypeExpr)

ForTypeExpr <- ForPrefix TypeExpr (KEYWORD_else TypeExpr)?

WhileTypeExpr <- WhilePrefix TypeExpr (KEYWORD_else Payload? TypeExpr)?

SwitchExpr <- KEYWORD_switch LPAREN Expr RPAREN LBRACE SwitchProngList RBRACE

# *** Assembly ***
AsmExpr <- KEYWORD_asm KEYWORD_volatile? LPAREN Expr AsmOutput? RPAREN

AsmOutput <- COLON AsmOutputList AsmInput?

AsmOutputItem <- LBRACKET IDENTIFIER RBRACKET STRINGLITERAL LPAREN (MINUSRARROW TypeExpr / IDENTIFIER) RPAREN

AsmInput <- COLON AsmInputList AsmClobbers?

AsmInputItem <- LBRACKET IDENTIFIER RBRACKET STRINGLITERAL LPAREN Expr RPAREN

AsmClobbers <- COLON StringList

# *** Helper grammar ***
BreakLabel <- COLON IDENTIFIER

BlockLabel <- IDENTIFIER COLON

FieldInit <- DOT IDENTIFIER EQUAL Expr

WhileContinueExpr <- COLON LPAREN AssignExpr RPAREN

LinkSection <- KEYWORD_linksection LPAREN Expr RPAREN

# Fn specific
CallConv <- KEYWORD_callconv LPAREN Expr RPAREN

ParamDecl
    <- doc_comment? (KEYWORD_noalias / KEYWORD_comptime)? (IDENTIFIER COLON)? ParamType
     / DOT3

ParamType
    <- KEYWORD_anytype
     / TypeExpr

# Control flow prefixes
IfPrefix <- KEYWORD_if LPAREN Expr RPAREN PtrPayload?

WhilePrefix <- KEYWORD_while LPAREN Expr RPAREN PtrPayload? WhileContinueExpr?

ForPrefix <- KEYWORD_for LPAREN Expr RPAREN PtrIndexPayload

# Payloads
Payload <- PIPE IDENTIFIER PIPE

PtrPayload <- PIPE ASTERISK? IDENTIFIER PIPE

PtrIndexPayload <- PIPE ASTERISK? IDENTIFIER (COMMA IDENTIFIER)? PIPE


# Switch specific
SwitchProng <- SwitchCase EQUALRARROW PtrPayload? AssignExpr

SwitchCase
    <- SwitchItem (COMMA SwitchItem)* COMMA?
     / KEYWORD_else

SwitchItem <- Expr (DOT3 Expr)?

# Operators
AssignOp
    <- ASTERISKEQUAL
     / SLASHEQUAL
     / PERCENTEQUAL
     / PLUSEQUAL
     / MINUSEQUAL
     / LARROW2EQUAL
     / RARROW2EQUAL
     / AMPERSANDEQUAL
     / CARETEQUAL
     / PIPEEQUAL
     / ASTERISKPERCENTEQUAL
     / PLUSPERCENTEQUAL
     / MINUSPERCENTEQUAL
     / EQUAL

CompareOp
    <- EQUALEQUAL
     / EXCLAMATIONMARKEQUAL
     / LARROW
     / RARROW
     / LARROWEQUAL
     / RARROWEQUAL

BitwiseOp
    <- AMPERSAND
     / CARET
     / PIPE
     / KEYWORD_orelse
     / KEYWORD_catch Payload?

BitShiftOp
    <- LARROW2
     / RARROW2

AdditionOp
    <- PLUS
     / MINUS
     / PLUS2
     / PLUSPERCENT
     / MINUSPERCENT

MultiplyOp
    <- PIPE2
     / ASTERISK
     / SLASH
     / PERCENT
     / ASTERISK2
     / ASTERISKPERCENT

PrefixOp
    <- EXCLAMATIONMARK
     / MINUS
     / TILDE
     / MINUSPERCENT
     / AMPERSAND
     / KEYWORD_try
     / KEYWORD_await

PrefixTypeOp
    <- QUESTIONMARK
     / KEYWORD_anyframe MINUSRARROW
     / SliceTypeStart (ByteAlign / KEYWORD_const / KEYWORD_volatile / KEYWORD_allowzero)*
     / PtrTypeStart (KEYWORD_align LPAREN Expr (COLON INTEGER COLON INTEGER)? RPAREN / KEYWORD_const / KEYWORD_volatile / KEYWORD_allowzero)*
     / ArrayTypeStart

SuffixOp
    <- LBRACKET Expr (DOT2 (Expr? (COLON Expr)?)?)? RBRACKET
     / DOT IDENTIFIER
     / DOTASTERISK
     / DOTQUESTIONMARK

FnCallArguments <- LPAREN ExprList RPAREN

# Ptr specific
SliceTypeStart <- LBRACKET (COLON Expr)? RBRACKET

PtrTypeStart
    <- ASTERISK
     / ASTERISK2
     / LBRACKET ASTERISK (LETTERC / COLON Expr)? RBRACKET

ArrayTypeStart <- LBRACKET Expr (COLON Expr)? RBRACKET

# ContainerDecl specific
ContainerDeclAuto <- ContainerDeclType LBRACE container_doc_comment? ContainerMembers RBRACE

ContainerDeclType
    <- KEYWORD_struct
     / KEYWORD_opaque
     / KEYWORD_enum (LPAREN Expr RPAREN)?
     / KEYWORD_union (LPAREN (KEYWORD_enum (LPAREN Expr RPAREN)? / Expr) RPAREN)?

# Alignment
ByteAlign <- KEYWORD_align LPAREN Expr RPAREN

# Lists
IdentifierList <- (doc_comment? IDENTIFIER COMMA)* (doc_comment? IDENTIFIER)?

SwitchProngList <- (SwitchProng COMMA)* SwitchProng?

AsmOutputList <- (AsmOutputItem COMMA)* AsmOutputItem?

AsmInputList <- (AsmInputItem COMMA)* AsmInputItem?

StringList <- (STRINGLITERAL COMMA)* STRINGLITERAL?

ParamDeclList <- (ParamDecl COMMA)* ParamDecl?

ExprList <- (Expr COMMA)* Expr?

# *** Tokens ***
eof <- !.
bin <- [01]
bin_ <- '_'? bin
oct <- [0-7]
oct_ <- '_'? oct
hex <- [0-9a-fA-F]
hex_ <- '_'? hex
dec <- [0-9]
dec_ <- '_'? dec

bin_int <- bin bin_*
oct_int <- oct oct_*
dec_int <- dec dec_*
hex_int <- hex hex_*

ox80_oxBF <- [\200-\277]
oxF4 <- '\364'
ox80_ox8F <- [\200-\217]
oxF1_oxF3 <- [\361-\363]
oxF0 <- '\360'
ox90_0xBF <- [\220-\277]
oxEE_oxEF <- [\356-\357]
oxED <- '\355'
ox80_ox9F <- [\200-\237]
oxE1_oxEC <- [\341-\354]
oxE0 <- '\340'
oxA0_oxBF <- [\240-\277]
oxC2_oxDF <- [\302-\337]

# From https://lemire.me/blog/2018/05/09/how-quickly-can-you-check-that-a-string-is-valid-unicode-utf-8/
# First Byte      Second Byte     Third Byte      Fourth Byte
# [0x00,0x7F]
# [0xC2,0xDF]     [0x80,0xBF]
#    0xE0         [0xA0,0xBF]     [0x80,0xBF]
# [0xE1,0xEC]     [0x80,0xBF]     [0x80,0xBF]
#    0xED         [0x80,0x9F]     [0x80,0xBF]
# [0xEE,0xEF]     [0x80,0xBF]     [0x80,0xBF]
#    0xF0         [0x90,0xBF]     [0x80,0xBF]     [0x80,0xBF]
# [0xF1,0xF3]     [0x80,0xBF]     [0x80,0xBF]     [0x80,0xBF]
#    0xF4         [0x80,0x8F]     [0x80,0xBF]     [0x80,0xBF]

mb_utf8_literal <-
       oxF4      ox80_ox8F ox80_oxBF ox80_oxBF
     / oxF1_oxF3 ox80_oxBF ox80_oxBF ox80_oxBF
     / oxF0      ox90_0xBF ox80_oxBF ox80_oxBF
     / oxEE_oxEF ox80_oxBF ox80_oxBF
     / oxED      ox80_ox9F ox80_oxBF
     / oxE1_oxEC ox80_oxBF ox80_oxBF
     / oxE0      oxA0_oxBF ox80_oxBF
     / oxC2_oxDF ox80_oxBF

ascii_char_not_nl_slash_squote <- [\000-\011\013-\046-\050-\133\135-\177]

char_escape
    <- "\\x" hex hex
     / "\\u{" hex+ "}"
     / "\\" [nr\\t'"]
char_char
    <- mb_utf8_literal
     / char_escape
     / ascii_char_not_nl_slash_squote

string_char
    <- char_escape
     / [^\\"\n]

container_doc_comment <- ('//!' [^\n]* [ \n]*)+
doc_comment <- ('///' [^\n]* [ \n]*)+
line_comment <- '//' ![!/][^\n]* / '////' [^\n]*
line_string <- ("\\\\" [^\n]* [ \n]*)+
skip <- ([ \n] / line_comment)*

CHAR_LITERAL <- "'" char_char "'" skip
FLOAT
    <- "0x" hex_int "." hex_int ([pP] [-+]? dec_int)? skip
     /      dec_int "." dec_int ([eE] [-+]? dec_int)? skip
     / "0x" hex_int [pP] [-+]? dec_int skip
     /      dec_int [eE] [-+]? dec_int skip
INTEGER
    <- "0b" bin_int skip
     / "0o" oct_int skip
     / "0x" hex_int skip
     /      dec_int   skip
STRINGLITERALSINGLE <- "\"" string_char* "\"" skip
STRINGLITERAL
    <- STRINGLITERALSINGLE
     / (line_string                 skip)+
IDENTIFIER
    <- !keyword [A-Za-z_] [A-Za-z0-9_]* skip
     / "@\"" string_char* "\""                            skip
BUILTINIDENTIFIER <- "@"[A-Za-z_][A-Za-z0-9_]* skip


AMPERSAND            <- '&'      ![=]      skip
AMPERSANDEQUAL       <- '&='               skip
ASTERISK             <- '*'      ![*%=]    skip
ASTERISK2            <- '**'               skip
ASTERISKEQUAL        <- '*='               skip
ASTERISKPERCENT      <- '*%'     ![=]      skip
ASTERISKPERCENTEQUAL <- '*%='              skip
CARET                <- '^'      ![=]      skip
CARETEQUAL           <- '^='               skip
COLON                <- ':'                skip
COMMA                <- ','                skip
DOT                  <- '.'      ![*.?]    skip
DOT2                 <- '..'     ![.]      skip
DOT3                 <- '...'              skip
DOTASTERISK          <- '.*'               skip
DOTQUESTIONMARK      <- '.?'               skip
EQUAL                <- '='      ![>=]     skip
EQUALEQUAL           <- '=='               skip
EQUALRARROW          <- '=>'               skip
EXCLAMATIONMARK      <- '!'      ![=]      skip
EXCLAMATIONMARKEQUAL <- '!='               skip
LARROW               <- '<'      ![<=]     skip
LARROW2              <- '<<'     ![=]      skip
LARROW2EQUAL         <- '<<='              skip
LARROWEQUAL          <- '<='               skip
LBRACE               <- '{'                skip
LBRACKET             <- '['                skip
LPAREN               <- '('                skip
MINUS                <- '-'      ![%=>]    skip
MINUSEQUAL           <- '-='               skip
MINUSPERCENT         <- '-%'     ![=]      skip
MINUSPERCENTEQUAL    <- '-%='              skip
MINUSRARROW          <- '->'               skip
PERCENT              <- '%'      ![=]      skip
PERCENTEQUAL         <- '%='               skip
PIPE                 <- '|'      ![|=]     skip
PIPE2                <- '||'               skip
PIPEEQUAL            <- '|='               skip
PLUS                 <- '+'      ![%+=]    skip
PLUS2                <- '++'               skip
PLUSEQUAL            <- '+='               skip
PLUSPERCENT          <- '+%'     ![=]      skip
PLUSPERCENTEQUAL     <- '+%='              skip
LETTERC              <- 'c'                skip
QUESTIONMARK         <- '?'                skip
RARROW               <- '>'      ![>=]     skip
RARROW2              <- '>>'     ![=]      skip
RARROW2EQUAL         <- '>>='              skip
RARROWEQUAL          <- '>='               skip
RBRACE               <- '}'                skip
RBRACKET             <- ']'                skip
RPAREN               <- ')'                skip
SEMICOLON            <- ';'                skip
SLASH                <- '/'      ![=]      skip
SLASHEQUAL           <- '/='               skip
TILDE                <- '~'                skip

end_of_word <- ![a-zA-Z0-9_] skip
KEYWORD_align       <- 'align'       end_of_word
KEYWORD_allowzero   <- 'allowzero'   end_of_word
KEYWORD_and         <- 'and'         end_of_word
KEYWORD_anyframe    <- 'anyframe'    end_of_word
KEYWORD_anytype     <- 'anytype'     end_of_word
KEYWORD_asm         <- 'asm'         end_of_word
KEYWORD_async       <- 'async'       end_of_word
KEYWORD_await       <- 'await'       end_of_word
KEYWORD_break       <- 'break'       end_of_word
KEYWORD_callconv    <- 'callconv'    end_of_word
KEYWORD_catch       <- 'catch'       end_of_word
KEYWORD_comptime    <- 'comptime'    end_of_word
KEYWORD_const       <- 'const'       end_of_word
KEYWORD_continue    <- 'continue'    end_of_word
KEYWORD_defer       <- 'defer'       end_of_word
KEYWORD_else        <- 'else'        end_of_word
KEYWORD_enum        <- 'enum'        end_of_word
KEYWORD_errdefer    <- 'errdefer'    end_of_word
KEYWORD_error       <- 'error'       end_of_word
KEYWORD_export      <- 'export'      end_of_word
KEYWORD_extern      <- 'extern'      end_of_word
KEYWORD_fn          <- 'fn'          end_of_word
KEYWORD_for         <- 'for'         end_of_word
KEYWORD_if          <- 'if'          end_of_word
KEYWORD_inline      <- 'inline'      end_of_word
KEYWORD_noalias     <- 'noalias'     end_of_word
KEYWORD_nosuspend   <- 'nosuspend'   end_of_word
KEYWORD_noinline    <- 'noinline'    end_of_word
KEYWORD_opaque      <- 'opaque'      end_of_word
KEYWORD_or          <- 'or'          end_of_word
KEYWORD_orelse      <- 'orelse'      end_of_word
KEYWORD_packed      <- 'packed'      end_of_word
KEYWORD_pub         <- 'pub'         end_of_word
KEYWORD_resume      <- 'resume'      end_of_word
KEYWORD_return      <- 'return'      end_of_word
KEYWORD_linksection <- 'linksection' end_of_word
KEYWORD_struct      <- 'struct'      end_of_word
KEYWORD_suspend     <- 'suspend'     end_of_word
KEYWORD_switch      <- 'switch'      end_of_word
KEYWORD_test        <- 'test'        end_of_word
KEYWORD_threadlocal <- 'threadlocal' end_of_word
KEYWORD_try         <- 'try'         end_of_word
KEYWORD_union       <- 'union'       end_of_word
KEYWORD_unreachable <- 'unreachable' end_of_word
KEYWORD_usingnamespace <- 'usingnamespace' end_of_word
KEYWORD_var         <- 'var'         end_of_word
KEYWORD_volatile    <- 'volatile'    end_of_word
KEYWORD_while       <- 'while'       end_of_word

keyword <- KEYWORD_align / KEYWORD_allowzero / KEYWORD_and / KEYWORD_anyframe
         / KEYWORD_anytype / KEYWORD_asm / KEYWORD_async / KEYWORD_await
         / KEYWORD_break / KEYWORD_callconv / KEYWORD_catch / KEYWORD_comptime
         / KEYWORD_const / KEYWORD_continue / KEYWORD_defer / KEYWORD_else
         / KEYWORD_enum / KEYWORD_errdefer / KEYWORD_error / KEYWORD_export
         / KEYWORD_extern / KEYWORD_fn / KEYWORD_for / KEYWORD_if
         / KEYWORD_inline / KEYWORD_noalias / KEYWORD_nosuspend / KEYWORD_noinline
         / KEYWORD_opaque / KEYWORD_or / KEYWORD_orelse / KEYWORD_packed
         / KEYWORD_pub / KEYWORD_resume / KEYWORD_return / KEYWORD_linksection
         / KEYWORD_struct / KEYWORD_suspend / KEYWORD_switch / KEYWORD_test
         / KEYWORD_threadlocal / KEYWORD_try / KEYWORD_union / KEYWORD_unreachable
         / KEYWORD_usingnamespace / KEYWORD_var / KEYWORD_volatile / KEYWORD_while

Zen §

  • Communicate intent precisely.
  • Edge cases matter.
  • Favor reading code over writing code.
  • Only one obvious way to do things.
  • Runtime crashes are better than bugs.
  • Compile errors are better than runtime crashes.
  • Incremental improvements.
  • Avoid local maximums.
  • Reduce the amount one must remember.
  • Focus on code rather than style.
  • Resource allocation may fail; resource deallocation must succeed.
  • Memory is a resource.
  • Together we serve the users.